Understanding Organisms and Autonomy

The term organism refers to any entity that is alive and actively engages with its environment.

Autonomy and Self-Determination

Definition of Autonomy: The need to experience choice in initiating and regulating one’s behavior, reflecting a desire for personal choice.
Three Qualities of Autonomy:
- Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC): Understanding the causal source of motivated actions.
- Perceived Choice: An environment that allows decision-making flexibility.
- Volition/Freedom: A heartfelt willingness to engage in activities without pressure.

The Puzzle of Choice

Providing choices does not inherently lead to autonomy.
True choice must reflect personal values and interests to promote autonomy.
Characteristics of Meaningful Choices:
- Unrestricted
- No strings attached
- Reflect personal values, goals, and interests
Meaningful choices lead to autonomy, fostering internal motivation, effort, creativity, and preference for challenges.

Motivating Styles

Autonomy-Supportive Motivating Style:
- Utilizes inner motivational resources.
- Takes the perspective of others.
- Values personal growth opportunities.
Controlling Motivating Style:
- Pressures individuals towards prescribed outcomes.
- Employs social influence techniques.
- Relies on outer motivational resources.

Satisfying the Need for Self-Determination

Controlling Environment:
- Imposes deadlines.
- Bosses people around.
- Strict rules dictate behavior.
Autonomy-Supportive Environment:
- Provides choice and flexibility.
- Listens and understands others’ perspectives.
- Supports individual interests and initiatives.

Competence Need

The desire to interact effectively with surroundings (e.g., school, work).
Serves as a motivation for mastering challenges.
To be effective, skills must be developed, exercised, and refined.
Effectance Motivation: The sense of whether a person can effectively interact with their environment.

Effectance Motivation (White, 1959)

Innate need to experience competence.
Requires optimal stimulation and challenge.
Leads to adaptive consequences, enhancing competence over the environment.
Brings joy and pleasure from new behaviors.

Model of Effectance Motivation

Involves willingness to exercise skills and capabilities.
Effects changes in the environment through voluntary, goal-directed actions.
Success leads to increased competence.

Conditions for Competence Need

Optimal Challenge: The flow state, characterized by deep concentration and enjoyment in activities.
Feedback:
- Clear goals and instructions.
- Consistent, sensitive feedback providing information, support, and guidance.
- Feedback sources include task-generated, self-generated, and social-generated evaluations.

Relatedness Need

Desire to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others.
Involves warm relationships and positive interactions.
Communal relationships emphasize caring for each other's needs.
Results in engagement, developmental growth, health, and well-being.

Types of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985):
- Amotivation: Lack of intent to act.
- Extrinsic Motivation:
  - External Regulation: Behaviors driven by external demands or rewards.
  - Introjected Regulation: Behaviors not fully accepted as one’s own.
  - Identified Regulation: Behavior is personally important but contingent upon external rewards.
  - Integrated Regulation: Regulations integrated into one’s values but still contingent upon rewards.
- Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation that is internally generated.

Self-Determination Continuum

Illustrates the spectrum from non-self-determined to self-determined behaviors.
PLOC plays a crucial role in this continuum.

Application of Self-Determination Theory

Used in advertisements, promotions, and marketing campaigns to enhance consumer engagement.
Examples include Patagonia’s tagline emphasizing environmental consciousness.

Review Questions

How many types of motivation are described in Self-Determination Theory?
What is the difference between reinforcers and punishments?
How do rewards affect intrinsic motivation?
What are the differences between incentives and consequences?
Provide an example of the hidden cost of rewards.
Describe how you may have been influenced by a recent advertisement.

Structure of Needs

Physiological Needs: Thirst, hunger, sex.
Psychological Needs: Autonomy, competency, relatedness.
Social Needs: Achievement, affiliation, power.

Acquired Needs

Two types of psychological acquired needs:
- Social Need: Originates from personal experiences and socialization.
- Quasi Need: Short-lived situationally induced wants, such as immediate desires for money or approval.

Social Needs

Include achievement, affiliation, intimacy, and power.
Originates from experiences and socialization, manifesting as personality characteristics.

Achievement Need

The need to seek success and perform well relative to a standard of excellence.
Standards of excellence can evoke both excitement and anxiety.
Arises from various social, cognitive, and developmental processes.

Theory of Achievement Motivation

Includes classical (Atkinson Model) and contemporary (Cognitive Appraisal) theories.
Achievement behaviors are influenced by the balance between success and failure.

Atkinson Model of Achievement

Four variables:
- Achievement Behavior
- Need for Achievement
- Probability of Success
- Incentive for Success
Predictors of achievement behavior are based on the tendency to approach success versus avoid failure.

Dynamics-of-Action Model

Behavior is determined by three forces:
- Instigation: Approach tendencies influenced by past rewards.
- Inhibition: Avoidance tendencies influenced by past punishments.
- Consummation: Performing an activity.
Latency and persistence in achievement tasks depend on motive strength.

Conclusion on Achievement Need

Mastery goals are associated with high competency expectancy.
Performance goals can lead to both high achievement needs and fear of failure.
Conditions that satisfy the need for achievement include moderately difficult tasks, competition, and creativity.

Need for Affiliation

Involves establishing and maintaining positive relationships with others.
Distinct from traits like extraversion and sociability.
Individuals high in need for affiliation may experience anxiety in relationships and a strong desire for approval and acceptance.

Understanding Psychological Needs and Emotions

Psychological Needs

Types of Psychological Needs:
- Self-generated evaluations: Comparing current performance with past performance.
- Social evaluations: Comparing one's performance with others.
- External evaluations: Feedback from others.

Relatedness Need

Definition: The need to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others.
Characteristics:
- Desire for emotional connection and warm relationships.
- Importance of positive interactions and supportive partners.
- Communal relationships where mutual care and obligation exist.
Consequences:
- Engagement, developmental growth, health, and well-being.
- Feelings of loneliness and alienation when neglected.

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

Intrinsic Motivation:
- Behaviors performed without external contingencies.
- Based on autonomy and competence needs.
- Essential for healthy development and functioning.
Key Concepts:
- PLOC: Understanding the causal source of action (internal vs. external).
- Perceived choice: Sense of choice versus obligation.
- Volition: Unpressured willingness to engage in activities.

Environmental Conditions and Psychological Needs

Autonomy: Opportunities for self-direction and autonomy support.
Competence: Optimal challenges and progress feedback.
Relatedness: Social interactions and communal relationships.

Emotions Overview

Key Questions:
- How many emotions exist?
- What are the functions of emotions?
- Differences between cognitive and biological perspectives.
- Differences between moods and emotions.
- Can emotions be voluntarily controlled?
- Techniques for emotional regulation.

Biological Aspects of Emotion

Three Central Aspects: Biological, Cognitive, and Social-Cultural.
Biological Perspectives:
- James-Lange Theory: Emotions arise from physiological reactions.
- Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

James-Lange Theory

Core Idea: Emotions result from physiological changes in response to events.
Critiques:
- Physiological responses may not be unique to specific emotions.
- Subjective emotional experiences are often ignored.

Contemporary Perspectives

Emotion-Specific Patterns: Distinct physiological activities associated with basic emotions.
Emotional Mapping: Different emotions can be mapped to specific physiological responses.

Cognitive Aspects of Emotion

Appraisal Theory: Emotions are influenced by personal significance of events.
Complex Appraisal:
- Primary appraisal: Relevance to personal goals.
- Secondary appraisal: Coping potential for benefits, harms, or threats.

Social and Cultural Aspects of Emotion

Social Interaction: Emotions are intrinsic to interpersonal relationships.
Emotional Contagion: Automatic mimicry of emotions can create emotional convergence.

Affiliation and Intimacy Needs

Need for Affiliation: Establishing and maintaining positive relationships.
Need for Intimacy: Engaging in warm, close relationships that foster positive emotions.

Need for Power

Definition: Desire to influence and control the environment.
Conditions for Satisfaction:
- Leadership roles and influential occupations.
- High need for power often correlates with aggression and recognition.

Emotional Regulation Strategies

Five Strategies:
- Situation Selection: Making emotional experiences more or less likely.
- Situation Modification: Problem-focused coping and establishing control.
- Attentional Focus: Redirecting attention within situations.
- Reappraisal: Changing perceptions to modify emotional impact.
- Suppression: Down-regulating emotional responses.

Differences Between Emotions and Moods

Emotions: Short-lived, specific responses to events.
Moods: Longer-lasting, less intense, and less specific states.

Functions of Emotions

Evolutionary Functions: Emotions help organisms survive and adapt to challenges.
Cultural Functions: Emotions facilitate social interactions and relationship dynamics.

Conclusion

Emotions play a crucial role in motivation, social interactions, and personal well-being.
Understanding psychological needs and emotions is essential for personal development and interpersonal relationships.

Self-Concept and Self-Schema

Self-concept refers to the set of beliefs an individual holds about themselves, which serves as a cognitive structure. It consists of a cluster of domain-specific self-schemas that reflect the consistency individuals perceive in their social behavior. This concept is articulated and differentiated in memory, allowing individuals to process information about themselves with relative ease.

Individuals with a well-developed self-schema can confidently predict their future behavior in specific domains.
They can quickly retrieve self-related behavioral evidence and resist counter-schematic information about themselves.

Can Self-Concept Change?

Self-concept can change under various circumstances, influenced by social forces and personal experiences. Key points include:

A valid and consistent self-schema leads to self-concept certainty.
High self-concept certainty anchors self-schema, while moderate certainty combined with potent discrepant feedback can lead to a self-verification crisis.
Low self-concept coupled with social feedback can trigger self-schema change.

Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas

Self-schemas have motivational properties that guide behavior:

Consistent Self: Directs behavior to confirm self-view and avoid feedback that may disconfirm it.
Possible Self: Generates motivation to transition from the present self to a desired future self, encouraging individuals to strive for improvement.

Possible Selves

Possible selves represent attributes and characteristics that an individual does not yet possess. They are primarily socially derived, as individuals observe models of selves in others. The motivational role of possible selves is crucial in linking the present self with the ideal self, portraying the self as a dynamic entity with a past, present, and future.

Agency and Self-Regulation

Agency

Agency extends beyond self-concept, encompassing the self as an active entity driven by innate processes and motivations. Key aspects include:

Differentiation: Expands and elaborates the self, promoting complexity.
Integration: Synthesizes complexity into a cohesive whole, forming a unified self.

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation refers to the capacity to guide one's activities over time and across changing circumstances. Effective self-regulation relies on:

Standards: Ideas of how things could be.
Monitoring: Keeping track of behaviors.
Capacity to Change: Aligning behavior with established standards.

Food for Thought

Self-regulation theory can provide insights into successful dieting strategies:

Commitment to standards.
Setting high and low-level goals.
Monitoring food intake.
Willpower and the capacity to change, which may involve reducing other demands to strengthen dieting efforts.

Four Components of Self-Regulation

Self-Monitoring: Seeking and interpreting feedback on progress toward goals.
Self-Evaluation: Comparing desired goal states with current performance levels, leading to adjustments in effort and goal commitment.
Self-Reactions: Affective responses associated with goal attainment and progress.
Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s capabilities to mobilize the necessary resources to meet situational demands.

Self-Control and Expectancy

Self-Control

Self-control is the capacity to suppress and override impulsive behaviors, which is crucial for achieving long-term goals.

Expectancy

Expectancy refers to the subjective prediction of how likely an event will occur, with two types:

Efficacy Expectation: Judgment of one’s capacity to execute a particular behavior.
Outcome Expectation: Judgment of whether one’s behavior will produce a positive outcome.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the necessary resources to cope effectively with situational demands. It encompasses:

Judgment of how well one will cope with a situation based on skills and circumstances.
Generative capacity to improvise ways to translate personal abilities into effective performance.

Sources of Self-Efficacy

Personal Behavior History: Past attempts to execute a behavior.
Vicarious Experience: Learning through observing others.
Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement from others.
Physiological Activity: The impact of physical arousal on perceived efficacy.

Effects of Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy influences several behavioral aspects:

Choice: Affects approach vs. avoidance behaviors.
Effort and Persistence: Higher self-efficacy leads to greater effort and persistence.
Thinking and Decision Making: Enhances analytical skills, even under stress.
Emotional Reactions: Influences stress and anxiety levels.

Empowerment and Mastery Belief

Empowerment

Empowerment is the process of enabling individuals to take control of their actions and decisions autonomously. It involves:

Knowledge and skills that allow exerting control over one’s life.
Improving self-efficacy to enhance confidence in performing tasks.

Mastery Belief

Mastery belief reflects the perceived control over achieving desirable outcomes. High perceived control leads to a strong link between action and outcome, while low perceived control results in a weak link.

Stages of Mastery

The process of achieving mastery in any field includes five stages:

Novice
Advanced Beginner
Competence
Proficiency
Expertise

Learned Helplessness

Learned Helplessness Theory

Learned helplessness is characterized by three components:

Contingency: The relationship between behavior and outcomes.
Cognition: The subjective understanding of control.
Behavior: The coping responses to attain or prevent outcomes.

Effects of Helplessness

Helplessness can lead to:

Decreased willingness to try new things.
Acquired pessimism that interferes with learning new responses.
Energy-depleting emotions such as listlessness and depression.

Attributions and Explanatory Style

Attributions influence how individuals perceive their control over outcomes:

Locus: Internal vs. external attributions.
Stability: Stable vs. unstable attributions.
Controllability: Controllable vs. uncontrollable attributions.

Explanatory styles can be optimistic or pessimistic, affecting self-esteem and future outlook.

Reactance Theory

Reactance theory explores the psychological and behavioral responses to perceived threats to personal freedom. It suggests that expectations of uncontrollability foster helplessness, while expectations of controllability foster assertiveness.

Putting It All Together: Hope

Hope encompasses high self-efficacy and the perceived capacity to achieve goals, along with clear pathways to goal attainment. It reflects the belief that multiple viable routes exist to reach desired goals.

Review Questions

What are the sources of self-efficacy?
How does self-efficacy affect behaviors?
How is learned helplessness developed?
What are the differences between mastery and learned helplessness?
How do attributions influence our sense of personal control?

Interpersonal Relationships and Emotions

Interpersonal relationships (IR) are fundamental to human interaction, serving to create, maintain, and dissolve connections between individuals. These relationships can draw people together or push them apart, significantly influencing emotional experiences.

Emotional Contagion

Definition: Emotional contagion (EC) refers to the automatic mimicry and synchronization of expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with another person, leading to emotional convergence.
Mechanism: Through emotional contagion, individuals can "catch" emotions from others, impacting their own emotional state.
Examples: If a friend is happy and excited, you may feel uplifted and joyful as well, demonstrating the social aspect of emotion.

Purpose of Sharing Emotions

Sharing emotions serves several purposes, including:

Regulation: Helps individuals manage and regulate their emotions.
Relief: Provides a sense of relief from emotional burdens.
Cognitive Stimulation: Encourages cognitive processing necessary for emotional healing and recovery.

Cultural Context of Emotions

Emotions are understood differently across various cultural contexts.
Changes in cultural environments can alter an individual’s emotional repertoire.
Forms of Culture: Includes nationality, ethnicity, neighborhood, dialects, and preferred languages, all of which shape emotional expression.
Consider how emotional expressions may vary in different social and cultural settings.

Review Questions

Emotions are multifaceted. What percentage of emotions stems from biological, cognitive, and social/cultural origins?
What are the limitations of biological theories of emotions?
How does arousal influence emotions?
What appraisal processes are involved in the cognitive assessment of situations?
How might emotional expression differ across various social and cultural environments?
How can a change in perspective about exams reduce feelings of overwhelm and increase confidence?

Recommended Videos

Further Reading

Cavanaugh, L. A., MacInnis, D. J., & Weiss, A. M. (2016). Perceptual dimensions differentiate emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 30(8), 1430-1445.
Kassam, K. S., Markey, A. R., Cherkassky, V. L., Loewenstein, G., & Just, M. A. (2013). Identifying emotions on the basis of neural activation. PLoS ONE, 8(6): e66032.
Nummenmaa, L., Glerean, E., Hari, R., & Hietanen, J. K. (2014). Bodily maps of emotions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(2), 646-651.

Introduction to Motivation and Emotion

The module aims to provide a critical understanding of theories and research related to motivation and emotion, appraising associated issues and controversies, and applying theoretical concepts to practical problems.

Core Questions in Motivation Studies

What initiates behavior?
How is behavior sustained over time?
Why is behavior directed toward some goals while avoiding others?
What causes changes in behavioral direction?
What leads to the cessation of behavior?

Definitions

Motivation: The psychological cause or purpose behind an action, providing energy and direction to behavior.
Emotion: A positive or negative experience associated with specific patterns of physiological activity.

Motivational Reasons to Exercise

Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities for enjoyment, such as children exercising for fun.
Goal Achievement: Setting specific goals, like running a 10km in a certain time.
Stress Relief: Using exercise as a means to manage stress and maintain personal control.

Types of Motivation

Internal Motives: Include needs, cognition, and emotions that energize approach and avoidance tendencies.
External Events: Environmental incentives and consequences that provide energy and direction to behavior.

Measuring Motivation

Methods include:

Behavior: Attention, effort, latency, persistence, choice, probability of response, facial expressions, and bodily gestures.
Engagement: Behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and vocal expressions during activities.
Physiology: Heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, pupil diameter, skin conductance, and muscle activity.
Self Report: Through interviews and questionnaires.

Historical Perspective on Motivation

Philosophical origins of motivational concepts trace back to thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Grand theories include:
- Will: The ultimate motivational force.
- Instinct: Actions based on natural instincts.
- Drive: Biological imbalances that create motivational drives.
Mini-theories emerged to address specific motivational phenomena and contexts.

Mini Theories of Motivation

Examples include:
- Achievement Motivation Theory
- Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation
- Cognitive Dissonance Theory
- Flow Theory
- Self-Efficacy Theory

Different Perspectives on Motivation

Behavioral: How motives arise from incentives and rewards.
Biological: How motives emerge from brain and hormonal systems.
Cognitive: How motives develop from thought processes.
Evolutionary: How genetic endowment influences motives.
Humanistic: How motives encourage human potential.
Psychoanalytical: How unconscious mental life shapes motives.

Extrinsic Motivation

Defined as an environmentally created reason to engage in an action.
Types include:
- External Regulation: Behaviors performed to satisfy external demands.
- Introjected Regulation: Behaviors performed to avoid guilt or enhance self-esteem.
- Identified Regulation: Behavior that is personally important but contingent upon external rewards.
- Integrated Regulation: Regulations adopted into one’s values but still contingent upon rewards.
- Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation that is internally generated.

Conclusion

Understanding the complexities of motivation and emotion is crucial for personal development and social interactions. By recognizing the various factors that influence our behaviors and emotional responses, individuals can better navigate their personal and social lives.

Benefits of Adopting Mastery Goals

Preference for Challenging Tasks: Individuals with mastery goals tend to seek out and engage in tasks that are challenging, viewing them as opportunities for growth.
Use of Conceptually Based Learning Strategies: These individuals are more likely to employ strategies that promote deep understanding rather than rote memorization.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Mastery goal adopters experience greater intrinsic motivation, which is driven by personal satisfaction and interest, compared to extrinsic motivation, which is driven by external rewards.
Help-Seeking Behavior: They are more inclined to ask for information and assistance when needed, recognizing that collaboration can enhance learning.
Work Harder, Persist Longer, Perform Better: Mastery goals correlate with increased effort, persistence, and overall performance in tasks.

Achievement Goals Attitudes

Types of Achievement-Related Attitudes (Butler, 1999):
- Task-Involvement: This motivational state focuses on acquiring skills and understanding, leading to challenging attributions and increased effort.
- Ego-Involvement: This state emphasizes demonstrating superior abilities and achieving success by outperforming others, where feelings of success are tied to self-worth and the avoidance of failure.

Mindset

Cognitive Framework: Mindset serves as a cognitive framework that influences attention, information processing, decision making, and interpretations of effort, success, and failure.
Common Mindset Phrases: Phrases like “Just do it” and “do the right thing” encapsulate the essence of mindset.
Types of Mindsets:
- Deliberative - Implemental: Balancing between planning and executing.
- Promotion - Prevention: Focusing on aspirations versus avoiding losses.
- Growth - Fixed: Belief in the ability to develop skills versus seeing abilities as static.
- Consistency - Dissonance: Striving for consistency in beliefs and actions versus experiencing cognitive dissonance.

Growth vs. Fixed Mindset

Growth Mindset:
- Belief that personal qualities can be developed through effort.
- Views effort as a means to enhance skills and abilities.
- Encourages the adoption of mastery goals.
Fixed Mindset:
- Belief that personal qualities are static and unchangeable.
- Sees high effort as indicative of low ability.
- Leads to the adoption of performance goals.

Review Questions

What factors are important in the goal-setting process?
How does the TOTE model regulate behavior?
How to set effective goals? Provide an example of applying SMART goals in real life.
What is the difference between mastery and performance goals?
How can we maintain goal-oriented behavior?

Physiological & Psychological Needs

Understanding needs is crucial for maintaining well-being. Needs can be categorized into:

Physiological Needs: Basic requirements for survival, such as thirst, hunger, and sex.
Psychological Needs: Needs related to autonomy, competency, and relatedness.
Social Needs: Needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.

Fundamentals of Regulation

Satiated State
Gradual development of physiological deprivation
Prolonged deprivation leads to intensified bodily needs
Psychological drive arises (anxiety, tension)
Goal-directed behavior occurs
Consummatory behavior is exhibited
Drive is reduced

Hull’s Drive Theory

Physiological Need: Arises from deficits in tissues and blood.
Drive: A psychological term representing the conscious manifestation of biological needs.
Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium state.
Negative Feedback: A physiological system that halts processes once needs are met.
Multiple Inputs/Outputs: Drive involves various inputs (activation) and outputs (behavioral responses).

Intra & Extra Organismic Mechanisms

Intra-Organismic: Biological systems that activate, maintain, and terminate physiological needs (e.g., brain, endocrine system).
Extra-Organismic: Environmental influences affecting psychological drives.
- Cognitive: Goals (e.g., weight loss).
- Environmental: Cues like food smells, time of day.
- Social: Peer pressure and presence of others.
- Cultural: Gender roles and ideals of body shapes.

Physiological Needs

Thirst:
- Water constitutes about 2/3 of the body; a drop in volume (~2%) triggers thirst.
- Dehydration of ~3% can be dangerous; survival without water is limited to ~2 days.
- Water loss occurs through perspiration, urination, exhalation, and other means.
- Negative feedback systems in the body regulate water intake.
Hunger:
- Short-term processes are regulated by the glucostatic hypothesis (glucose depletion).
- Long-term processes involve metabolic regulation and energy balance (lipostatic model).
- Brain regions like the lateral hypothalamus (feeding center) and ventromedial hypothalamus (satiety center) play key roles.
Sex:
- Essential for species survival; involves a sexual response cycle (Masters & Johnson, 1966).
- Stages include excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, with males experiencing a refractory phase.

Failures to Regulate Physiological Needs

Underestimating the power of biological urges when not currently felt.
Lack of consistent standards can lead to conflicting or unrealistic expectations.
Distraction or preoccupation can hinder monitoring of needs and behaviors.

Organismic Need (Growth Needs)

Active Engagement: The need for autonomy in interactions with the environment.
Skill Development: The need for competence through learning and growth.
Health Development: The need for relatedness and connection with others.

Autonomy/Self-Determination

The need for autonomy encompasses:

Choice in Behavior: The desire to initiate and regulate one's actions.
PLOC: Understanding the source of motivated actions.
Perceived Choice: An environment that allows for decision-making flexibility.
Volition/Freedom: A genuine willingness to engage in activities without pressure.

Goal Setting and Goal Striving

Presented by Dr. Lee Ai-Suan, this lecture focuses on the psychological aspects of goal setting and striving, emphasizing the importance of understanding personal goals at various levels.

Understanding Life Goals

Consideration of personal life goals.
Goals related to academic achievements, such as degree completion.
Daily goals that contribute to larger objectives.

Behavioral Insights

The lecture begins with a recap of key questions regarding behavior:

What motivates behavior?
Why do behaviors vary in intensity across different situations?

Regulation of Behavior

Behavior is regulated by various factors:

Motivation: Can be internal (personal desires) or external (influences from the environment).
Needs, Cognition, and Emotions: Mental processes play a crucial role in influencing actions.

Lecture Topics Overview

Plans
Goal Setting
Goal Striving
Implementation Intentions

Plans and Their Role in Motivation

Plans serve as mental representations of ideal states:

Behavior: The ideal action one wishes to take.
Environment: The ideal object or setting.
Events: The ideal situation one aims to achieve.

Awareness of the present state is essential, and a mismatch between the ideal and present state creates a sense of incongruity that motivates action.

Understanding Discrepancy

The present state reflects an individual's current life situation, while the ideal state represents desired outcomes:

Discrepancy between these states motivates change.
Plans are formulated to bridge this gap.

The TOTE Model

The TOTE model (Test, Operate, Test, Exit) outlines how plans energize and direct behavior:

Test: Compare present state with the ideal state.
Operate: Act on the environment to realize the ideal state.
Exit: If the present state aligns with the ideal state, stop changing behavior.

Corrective Motivation

Plans can be adjusted based on incongruity, leading to:

Decision-making processes to reduce discrepancies.
Changing plans or behaviors as necessary.
Potentially quitting if the goal seems unattainable.

Types of Discrepancy

Discrepancy Reduction: Reactive approach to fixing issues based on feedback.
Discrepancy Creation: Proactive approach to setting higher future goals.

Goals and Motivation

Goals are crucial for motivation:

Creating ideal state discrepancies generates motivation.
Goals should be specific and challenging to enhance performance.

Goal Setting Mechanisms

Individuals with goals outperform those without.
Difficult goals energize behavior and increase persistence.
Specific goals provide direction and focus.

Performance Influencing Factors

Key factors affecting performance include:

Motivation
Ability
Training and coaching
Resources
Goal setting (difficulty, specificity, feedback)

Importance of Feedback

Feedback is essential for goal attainment:

Documents progress and defines performance levels.
Acts as a reinforcer or punisher based on performance.

Factors Influencing Goal Acceptance

Perceived difficulty and its inverse relationship with commitment.
Participation in the goal-setting process enhances internalization.
Credibility of the goal designer and extrinsic incentives play a role.

Long Term vs. Short Term Goals

While long-term goals are often ambitious, feedback is crucial:

Short-term goals can enhance persistence for uninteresting tasks.
Conversely, they may undermine intrinsic motivation for interesting tasks.

Cautions in Goal Setting

Goal setting should enhance performance, not just motivation.
Overly challenging goals can increase stress and lead to failure.
Intrinsic motivation may be at risk if goals are not managed properly.

Goal Striving and Visualization

Research highlights the importance of visualization in goal attainment:

Outcome simulation (focusing on the goal).
Process simulation (focusing on achieving the goal).
Control group (no focus).

Implementation Intentions

Setting goals alone does not ensure success. Common challenges include:

Getting started amidst distractions.
Persisting through difficulties.
Resuming after disruptions.

Effective Goal-Setting Steps

Specify the objective.
Define goal difficulty.
Clarify goal specificity.
Specify the time frame for assessment.
Check on goal acceptance.
Discuss attainment strategies.
Create implementation intentions.
Provide performance feedback.

SMART Goals

Goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. For example:

Vague goal: "Finish this assignment."
SMART goal: "Write one paragraph of the Introduction section in one hour."

Achievement Goals

Mastery Goals: Focus on developing competence and improving oneself.
Performance Goals: Aim to prove competence and outperform others.

Benefits of Mastery Goals

Preference for challenging tasks.
Use of effective learning strategies.
Greater intrinsic motivation.
Increased likelihood of seeking help and information.

Achievement Goals Attitudes

Two types of achievement-related attitudes:

Task Involvement: Focus on acquiring skills and understanding, leading to increased effort.
Ego Involvement: Focus on proving ability and outperforming others.

Motivational Orientation

This section explores the concept of motivation, focusing on various types and theories that explain human behavior and goal attainment.

Hope and Self-Efficacy

Hope: A crucial element in motivation characterized by two main components:

High Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to accomplish goals.
Clear Pathways to Goal Attainment: The belief that multiple viable routes exist to achieve desired goals.

Mastery Motivation: A drive to master skills and challenges, contributing to overall motivation.

Review Questions

What are the sources of Self-Efficacy?
How does Self-Efficacy affect behaviors?
How is Learned Helplessness developed?
What are the differences between Mastery and Learned Helplessness?
How do attributions influence our sense of personal control?
What is the reactance theory?

Types of Motivation

Understanding the different types of motivation is essential for comprehending human behavior.

Key Questions

What initiates behavior?
How is behavior sustained over time?
Why is behavior directed toward certain ends while avoiding others?
What causes changes in behavior direction?
What leads to the cessation of behavior?

Overview of Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities for personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or self-development.
Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities for external rewards such as money, approval, or competition.
Incentives and Consequences: Understanding how external factors influence motivation.
Hidden Costs of Rewards: The potential negative impact of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: A framework for understanding how external events affect motivation.
Self-Determination Theory: A theory emphasizing the role of intrinsic motivation and psychological needs.
Using External Events to Motivate People: Strategies for utilizing external factors to enhance motivation.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

Driven by personal interest, enjoyment, and self-development.
Characteristics include:
- Persistence in activities.
- Creativity and conceptual understanding.
- Optimal functioning and well-being.
- Higher levels of self-actualization and life satisfaction.
- Improved self-esteem and interpersonal relationships.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by external factors.
Characteristics include:
- Environmental incentives that attract or repel behavior.
- Consequences that reinforce or punish behavior.
- Rewards that signify personal gain.

Understanding Incentives and Consequences

Incentives

Precede behavior and create expectations for outcomes.
Learned through experience and differ from consequences.
Excite or inhibit behavior initiation.

Consequences

Reinforcers: Increase behavior.
- Positive Reinforcers: Present and increase desirable behavior.
- Negative Reinforcers: Absent and increase desirable behavior (not punishment).
Punishers: Decrease undesired behavior when present.

Characteristics of Effective Reinforcers

Quality: Variability in effectiveness (e.g., praise vs. money).
Immediacy: The timing of the reward (immediate vs. delayed).
Person/Reinforcer Fit: Different individuals respond differently to the same reinforcer.
Recipient’s Need: The effectiveness of a reinforcer can change over time.
Intensity: The magnitude of the reward matters (e.g., $10 vs. $0.10).
Perceived Value: The subjective value of the reinforcer to the recipient.

How Reinforcers Increase Behavior

Decrease drive (e.g., hunger).
Decrease arousal (e.g., calming effects).
Increase arousal (e.g., excitement from events).
Attractiveness of the reinforcer (e.g., money).
Provide pleasurable brain stimulation (e.g., enjoyable activities).
Facilitate opportunities for frequent behaviors (e.g., watching TV).

Rewards and Their Functions

Rewards strengthen positive emotions and signal opportunities for personal gain.
Two main functions of rewards:
- Controlling: “If you do X, then you get Y.”
- Informational: “Because you were able to do X, you are effective and competent.”

Implications of Extrinsic Rewards

Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation, especially when expected.
Unexpected rewards tend not to undermine intrinsic motivation.
Tangible rewards (e.g., money) often decrease intrinsic motivation, while verbal rewards (e.g., praise) do not.

Effectiveness of Punishment

Punishment is often an ineffective motivational strategy.
Negative side effects include:
- Negative emotional responses (crying, fear).
- Impaired relationships between the punisher and the punished.
- Negative modeling of behavior.

Reasons Against Extrinsic Motivation

It can undermine performance quality.
It may interfere with the learning process.
There are more effective ways to encourage participation.
It can diminish long-term autonomous self-regulation.

Amotivation

Characterized by maladaptive beliefs and low value placed on tasks.
Four-part experience includes:
- Maladaptive Ability Beliefs: “I don’t have what it takes to do well.”
- Maladaptive Effort Beliefs: “I don’t have the energy.”
- Low Value on Task: “This task holds no interest for me.”
- Unappealing Task Characteristics: “This task is boring.”

Summary of Types of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory categorizes motivation into:
- Amotivation: Lack of motivation.
- Extrinsic Motivation: Various forms including:
  - External Regulation
  - Introjected Regulation
  - Identified Regulation
  - Internal Regulation
- Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities for their own sake.

Understanding Emotions and Psychological Well-Being

Components of Emotion

Emotions are complex phenomena that encompass various components:

Feelings: Subjective experiences that can be aversive or positive.
Bodily Arousal: Physiological responses such as heart rate changes and energy levels.
Sense of Purpose: The motivational drive to act in response to emotions.
Social-Expressive Elements: Includes facial and vocal expressions that communicate emotions.

Sadness as an Emotion

Sadness is characterized by:

Aversive Feelings: Feelings of distress and low energy.
Bodily Arousal: Decreased heart rate and energy levels.
Social-Expressive Signs: Changes in facial expressions, such as raised inner eyebrows and lowered lip corners.

Plutchik’s Feedback Loop

This model illustrates how emotions are processed:

Arousal: Initial physiological response to stimuli.
Preparation for Action: Cognitive interpretation leading to a motivational state.
Feelings: Subjective experience of the emotion.
Expressive Displays: Overt behaviors that communicate the emotion.

Emotional Intelligence (Goleman’s Competencies Model)

Emotional intelligence (EI) is crucial for personal and professional success:

Self-Management: Ability to manage one's emotions and reactions.
Social Awareness: Recognizing emotions in others and responding appropriately.
Relationship Management: Building and maintaining healthy relationships.

Identifying and Understanding Emotions

Key skills in emotional intelligence include:

Identifying Emotions: Recognizing one's own feelings and those of others.
Understanding Triggers: Knowing what events provoke specific emotions.
Complex Emotions: Understanding that emotions can blend and evolve over time.

Managing Emotions

Effective emotional management involves:

Staying open to feelings and reflecting on them.
Integrating emotions with cognitive processes.
Monitoring emotional responses to prevent burnout and enhance mental health.

Psychological Well-Being

Psychological well-being encompasses several dimensions:

Self-Acceptance: A positive view of oneself and one’s past.
Positive Relationships: Quality connections with others.
Autonomy: Independence in thought and action.
Environmental Mastery: Ability to manage one’s life and surroundings effectively.
Purpose in Life: Having meaning and direction.
Personal Growth: Continuous development and self-improvement.

Positive Psychology

Positive psychology focuses on strengths and virtues that enable individuals to thrive:

Encourages meaningful and fulfilling lives.
Promotes personal strengths and competencies.
Aims to enhance experiences of love, work, and play.

Self-Actualization

Self-actualization is the realization of one's potential and capabilities:

Involves autonomy, mindfulness, and openness to experiences.
Encouraged through behaviors such as honesty and embracing peak experiences.

Growth Motivation

Growth motivation is essential for achieving personal and psychological development:

Involves setting goals and striving for self-improvement.
Encourages resilience, self-efficacy, and the pursuit of personal strengths.

Criticisms of Positive Psychology

While positive psychology has many benefits, it faces criticisms:

Overemphasis on positive aspects of human nature, potentially neglecting negative potentials.
Vagueness in concepts and lack of empirical support.
Potential cultural biases in its application.

Practical Applications of Positive Psychology

Exercises to enhance well-being include:

Gratitude Visits: Writing letters of thanks to those who have positively impacted your life.
Three Good Things: Daily reflections on positive experiences and their causes.
You at Your Best: Reflecting on peak experiences and the resources that enabled them.
Identifying Signature Strengths: Recognizing and utilizing personal strengths in new ways.

Conclusion

Understanding and managing emotions, along with fostering psychological well-being, are crucial for personal growth and fulfillment. By applying principles from emotional intelligence and positive psychology, individuals can enhance their quality of life and achieve self-actualization.

Understanding Emotions and Hardiness

Emotional Landscape

Types of Emotions: Common unpleasant emotions include anxiety, sadness, fear, anger, guilt, shame, and irritability.

Positive Affect vs Negative Affect

Positive Affect:
- Characterized by pleasurable engagement.
- Driven by a reward-oriented, appetitive motivational system.
- Encourages approach behavior.
- Involves dopaminergic pathways in the brain.
Negative Affect:
- Involves unpleasant engagement.
- Driven by a punishment-oriented, aversive motivational system.
- Encourages withdrawal behavior.
- Involves serotonergic and noradrenergic pathways.

Review Questions

How many emotions exist?
What are the functions of emotions?
What is the difference between cognitive and biological perspectives on emotions?
How do moods differ from emotions?
Can people voluntarily control their emotions? If so, to what extent?
What techniques assist in regulating emotions?

Self-Regulation and Hardiness

This section focuses on self-regulation and hardiness as essential components in managing stress and emotions.

Overview of Activities

Activity 1: Goals, plans, intentions.
Activity 2: Hardiness, including challenge, control, and commitment, along with role-play exercises.
Activity 3: Relaxation skills, coping strategies, and creating a stress hardy plan.

Goleman’s Competencies Model (1998)

This model outlines emotional intelligence competencies essential for personal and professional success.

Goals, Plans, and Intentions

Planning Fallacy: The tendency to underestimate the time required to complete a project, leading to procrastination.
Strategies to Combat Planning Errors:
- Set realistic short-term and long-term goals.
- Develop an action plan to achieve these goals.

Social Learning Process for Self-Regulation

Involves observation of expert models, imitation, social guidance, and feedback.
Includes internalization of standards and self-regulatory processes such as self-monitoring and self-evaluation.

Understanding Hardiness

Hardiness is the ability to cope effectively with stress.
Individuals can enhance their stress hardiness through experience, coping, and learning.
Think of hardiness as a coping 'toolbox' filled with strategies to manage stress.

Key Components of Hardiness

Control: Belief in one's ability to manage challenges and maintain a positive outlook.
Challenge: Viewing life as an opportunity for growth rather than a series of threats.
Commitment: Having a sense of purpose and dedication to one's goals.

Improving Hardiness

Respond appropriately to change rather than react impulsively.
Assess personal reactions to stress and change.
Recognize that not all changes are negative and explore their potential benefits.
Modify self-talk to maintain a positive perspective.

Relaxation Skills and Coping Strategies

Relaxation Techniques:
- Muscle relaxation.
- Breathing exercises.
- Visualization.
- Meditation.
- Prayer.
Coping Skills:
- Positive self-talk.
- Maintaining a gratitude journal.
- Practicing relaxation strategies.
- Viewing challenges as opportunities.

Summary of Hardiness

View oneself as in charge and in control.
Embrace challenges as opportunities to test stress management skills.

Assignment and Submission Guidelines

Reminder: Research report due on Week 11, Friday, July 11, at 3 PM.
Post questions on the 'Assignment Q&A' discussion forum for quicker responses.
Ensure enrollment in the correct group on eLearn and read submission instructions carefully.

Theory of Achievement Motivation

The Theory of Achievement Motivation encompasses two primary models: the Classical Atkinson Model and the Contemporary Cognitive Appraisal Model. Both models offer insights into how achievement is perceived and approached.

Classical Atkinson Model: Focuses on the interplay between success and failure, highlighting the emotional responses associated with achievement behaviors.
Contemporary Cognitive Appraisal Model: Emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in evaluating success and failure.
Both models illustrate achievement as a balance between approach and avoidance, where individuals navigate between the pride of success and the shame of failure.

Atkinson Model of Achievement (1964)

The Atkinson Model identifies four key variables that influence achievement behavior:

Achievement Behavior: The actions taken towards achieving a goal.
Need for Achievement: The intrinsic desire to accomplish tasks and succeed.
Probability of Success: The perceived likelihood of achieving the desired outcome.
Incentive for Success: The value or reward associated with succeeding.

These variables interact to predict achievement behavior, particularly the tendency to approach success (Ts), which can be calculated using the formula:

T_s = M_s \times P_s \times I_s

M_s: Motive to succeed
P_s: Perceived probability of success
I_s: Incentive value of success

Predictors of Achievement Behavior

Achievement behavior is maximized when the tendency to succeed outweighs the tendency to fail, particularly when tasks are of moderate difficulty. The model outlines three types of achievement goals:

Performance Approach: Aiming to demonstrate competence and achieve success.
Performance Avoidance: Aiming to avoid failure and negative evaluation.
Mastery: Focusing on self-improvement and mastery of skills.

Formula for Predicting Behavior

The formula for predicting episodic behavior in achievement contexts is:

Understanding Autonomy, Motivation, and Psychological Needs

Understanding Autonomy, Motivation, and Psychological Needs