TITLE_START History of India-III (750 - 1206 CE): Comprehensive Study Material TITLE_END HTML_START

History of India-III (750 - 1206 CE): Comprehensive Study Material

This course delves into the history of India from approximately 750 to 1206 CE, a period often referred to as the early medieval era. This phase witnessed significant transformations across economic, social, political, and cultural spheres, laying the groundwork for later medieval developments, including the consolidation of feudal structures and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. The study emphasizes analyzing these changes not merely as shifts in political power but as a broader emergence of local dynasties and regional characteristics.

Course Introduction: Overview of the Early Medieval Period

The period from c. 750-1206 CE is characterized by several distinguishing features:

Emergence of Feudalism: Feudal characteristics, which began in the Gupta period, became more pronounced post-Gupta. This involved an increase in land grants to donees, leading to a proliferation of landlords who also wielded political authority. Restrictions were imposed on peasants, artisans, and merchants, leading to a deterioration of the peasantry's condition and the rise of forced labor.
Urban Decline and Commercial Setback: The process of urbanization suffered, and a decline in commerce and trade was observed.
Regional Polities: The era saw the emergence and consolidation of numerous regional polities, particularly in western, central, and eastern India, as well as the Deccan. These polities, such as the Rajputs, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chalukyas, exhibited distinct politico-cultural features and often influenced by factors like lineage and land-rights.
Architectural Evolution: Three distinct architectural styles—Dravida, Nagara, and Vesara—crystallized, reflecting a growing regionalism in art and architecture. Temple architecture, stone sculptures, metal images, and paintings indicate the impact of changing material life.
Periodization Debate: While the traditional periodization into Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India is acknowledged, the text highlights the difficulty in fixing precise dates for these transitions. The problem is compounded when these periods are equated with 'Hindu,' 'Muslim,' and 'British' periods, often linked to foreign invasions. The first significant Muslim military incursions in 712 CE (Muhammad bin Qasim's defeat of Dahar in Sindh) are seen as heralding a new period, leading to subsequent invasions by Mahmud of Ghazna and Muhammad Ghori. The Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE and Qutbuddin Aibak's accession in 1206 CE are considered watersheds.
Vibrant Society and Culture: Despite colonialist notions of a static Indian society, the early medieval period was dynamic, responsive to economic, political, and social changes. The land grant economy led to a specific socio-cultural pattern, broadly termed Feudalism, which influenced land rights, economic development, and socio-cultural manifestations.
Economic Shifts: The agrarian economy was characterized as closed and self-sufficient, with urban centers experiencing decay and trade reduced. However, from the tenth century CE onwards, trade revived, and new urban centers emerged, with flourishing maritime and inland trade. India played a significant role in international trade, involving groups like the Arabs and merchant organizations such as Ayyavole 500, Nanadesi, and Manigramam.
Religious Developments: Buddhism and Islam gained prominence along trade routes. Religious patronage shifted towards Islam after the 8th century due to eastward and southern migrations of Arabs and Turks. Popular religious movements, often non-Brahminical, emerged, advocating social equality. The philosophies of Shankaracharya and Vaishnava acharyas linked Vedanta with Puranic Hinduism, leading to a revival of Hinduism and the Bhakti cult. Shaktism also evolved, incorporating Brahmanical philosophy while retaining its unique characteristics.
Language and Literature: Sanskrit, as the elite language, gradually gave way to regional languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Odiya, Marathi, and Gujarati. While some Sanskrit works continued, regional literature flourished.
Science and Technology: Achievements in science and technology were made, with the Muslim rule introducing new educational patterns (Maktabs and Madrasas) and influencing indigenous classical learning.

Unit 1: Historical Sources

The reconstruction of early medieval Indian history (8th to early 13th century) relies on a diverse array of sources, categorized into Literary and Archaeological, with some Chinese accounts also providing valuable insights. This period is notable for the emergence of systematic historical writing, particularly with the advent of Islamic rule in northern India.

1.1 Introduction to Sources

Literary and Archaeological Sources: Similar to ancient India, sources are broadly divided into these two categories.
Chinese Accounts: Contributions from Chinese pilgrims offer additional perspectives.
Islamic Historical Writing: The beginning of Islamic rule introduced a significant tradition of historical writing, providing numerous texts for reconstructing the early Sultanate period.
New Genres: This era saw the rise of new literary genres such as charitas, vamsavalis, and prasastis. While most of these, except for Rajatarangini, are not strictly historical, they contain valuable historical information.

1.2 Biographies or Charitas

Definition: Post-Gupta historical writing includes charitas, prasastis, and vamsavalis, which gained significance as they were no longer embedded in ritual texts. Charitas are historical biographies, the term literally meaning "moving," "doing," or "going," referring to a person's activities.
Nature: Primarily written as kavyas (poetic compositions), they are crucial for historical reconstruction. Romila Thapar notes that charitas articulate historical consciousness by detailing a person's actions, causes, purposes, and their placement in time and space. While containing elements of fantasy, these are limited. They functioned more as literature than critical historical writing.
Historical Context: The emergence of numerous polities in the mid-1st millennium CE led new courts to patronize poets to compose biographies, legitimizing dynasties and publicizing royal activities. Post-7th century courts were more hegemonic. The focus on individuals in charita literature may stem from the growth of Bhakti sects, which emphasized individual actions.
Significance: This biographical tradition became more common towards the end of the 1st millennium CE, reflecting changes in the historical situation. They filled the gap left by Puranas, which, post-mid-1st millennium CE, ceased to carry dynastic information.
Examples:
- Banabhatta’s Harshacharita: Focuses on Harshavardhana of Kannauj, his quest for sovereignty, and reign.
- Sandhyakaranandin’s Ramacharita (early 12th century CE): Details the reign of Pala king Ramapala, particularly the recovery of Varendri (heartland of Pala power) from the Kaivartas. It offers insight into what is interpreted as the first peasant revolt in Indian history, where Kaivartas (feudatories) revolted under Divya and Bhima. The text legitimizes Ramapala's accession by portraying the elder brother Mahipala as unworthy. It also provides information on Ramapala’s campaigns against Gahadvalas, Eastern Gangas, Karnatas, and Cholas. Dharmapala is eulogized as king of Kanyakubja/Kannauj, accepted by various peoples.
- Padmagupta’s Navasahasankacharita: A quasi-historical work about King Sindhuraja Navasahasanka of Malwa and his marriage to Sashiprabha.
- Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita: A eulogy for Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukya king of Kalyani.
- Hemchandra’s Kumarapalacharita: (Sanskrit and Prakrit) Narrates the story of Kumarapala, king of Anahilawada, while illustrating grammar rules.

1.3 Inscriptions

Types: Early Indian inscriptions include royal edicts, votive gifts, biographical statements, eulogies of rulers (prasastis), event records, and legal documents concerning land rights. They reflect historical change.
Audience and Medium: Inscriptions were significant for royal courts, contemporary courts, administration officials, religious sects (in land grants), and local communities. They were engraved in public spaces (temple walls) or on copper plates, which became family property. Later authors and bards consulted them. They were for public consumption, open to comments from elites (samantas, sreshthins, kayasthas, brahmanas).
Post-7th Century Significance: Many inscriptions from this period provide chronological dynastic history and event details. They often begin with a prasasti, a eulogy of kings and their achievements, which later included their dynasties. Changes in royal titles indicate significant political moments. Prasastis also detail religious affiliations, updated dynastic histories, and ancestry.
Land Grants: Inscriptions reveal the identity and religious affiliation of the grantee (Buddhist matha or brahmanas), the nature of the gift (revenue or land itself), and its extent. Land grants were not new but marked a shift from yajna (sacrificial ritual) to dana (gift) for legitimizing donors as patrons and donees as legitimizers. Wealth shifted from movable (cows, gold) to immovable (land). Brahmanas became powerful landowners, settling on gifted land with royal support, introducing Brahmanical traditions, and fostering kingship.
Economic and Social Change: Inscriptions are crucial for understanding the distinct economic structure from pre-Gupta to post-Gupta times. From the 6th century CE, they became official statements of significant events, mostly land grants to brahmanas, religious establishments, seminaries, or individuals. They inform debates on state formation, urbanization, feudalism, and women's status. Post-Gupta, Puranas ceased to provide dynastic information, a void filled by inscriptions.
Royal Inscriptions (rajakiyam): Included Sasanam (instructions), jayapatram (legal decisions), ajnapatram (orders), and prajnapanam (proclamations). These were for future kings, kept in royal custody, often bearing a royal seal. They provided genealogy, purpose, and date.
Language Shift: Pre-Gupta inscriptions were in Prakrit, but Sanskrit became common post-Gupta, catering to upper-caste sensibilities. By the 2nd millennium CE, regional languages also appeared in inscriptions, though prasastis remained in Sanskrit. Sanskrit was used by administrators, religious sects, philosophers, and literateurs.
Examples of State Formation:
- Candellas (9th-13th century CE, Central India): Inscriptions reconstruct their gradual state formation from a frontier area (periphery of Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, Pala kingdoms) where they were initially samantas. They detail confrontations with Cahamanas/Cauhanas, Gahadvalas, and Mahmud of Ghazni. They reveal how low-status Candella kings legitimized their rule through laudatory genealogies (partly fictional/historical), political alliances, origin myths (deities, sages, ancient histories), and marriage alliances.
- Kayasthas: Inscriptions also show the emergence of kayasthas as a powerful group, receiving donations to religious sects, indicating wealth, power, and status.
- Khoh Copper Plate (475 CE) and Samksobha (529 CE): Maharaja Hastin's grant of eighteen forest kingdoms illustrates how small kingdoms emerged, establishing semi-autonomous rulers with feudatories. This involved encroaching on forests, clearing land for cultivation, coercing forest dwellers into peasantry, or settling cultivators, thus acquiring revenue.

1.4 Temples

Post-Gupta Spurt: The period saw a surge in temple building, as emerging polities used sacred spaces to legitimize their rule.
Chola Temples: Cholas built massive temples with enclosures, gateways, mandapas, halls, and water bodies.
Diverse Patronage: Even those with lesser social status built temples, e.g., Sakta shrines like the Chausath Yogini temple at Khajuraho (9th century CE) for non-mainstream populations.
Inscriptions on Temple Walls: Large and small temples carried inscriptions from the post-Gupta period, providing information on grants.
Royal Ideology: New kings aligned temporal power with the religious domain. Larger, more famous temples brought greater glory to royal patrons.
Longevity and Evolution: Temples, built of superior materials, had greater longevity. Their emergence symbolized claims to independence and power, often evolving from modest cult shrines associated with royal family origins into elaborate structures with multiple mandapas, pavilions, and gopurams.
Historical Significance: Temples are crucial for dating settlements and providing information on architectural traditions, royal ideology, status, kings, and local dignitaries, especially through their wall inscriptions detailing grants. Many early medieval settlements grew around temples, making them central to religious, administrative, and economic history.

1.5 Oral Tradition as Source

Counterpart to Formal View: Oral tradition offers a subaltern or subordinate perspective, distinct from formal courtly views.
Bardic Tradition: Local lords (samantas) maintained bards who recorded genealogies and property rights. While court scribes and brahmana rajgurus authored impressive historical documents (inscriptions, chronicles), bardic narratives provided another form of legitimacy.
Patronage: Dominant caste families patronized pandas (priests-cum-genealogists) at pilgrimage sites (Pushkar, Hardwar) for special occasions.
Diversity in Historical Awareness: Bardic narratives, alongside inscriptions, enrich historical understanding. They focus on local heroes and reflect lower-status group perceptions.
Example:
- Prithvirajararasau of Chand Bardai: An epic poem on the Cahamana Rajputs, though thought to be 16th-17th century in its present form, refers to 12th-century events. It details the conflict between Cahamanas and later Candella kings, differing from official Candella inscriptions. Juxtaposing such narratives (e.g., Alha Raso of Jagnaik Rao) with court documents fills gaps and provides a subaltern perspective.

1.6 Puranas

Definition: Literally "that which is ancient," Puranas are important for reconstructing early medieval history, providing genealogical information on ruling dynasties.
Composition: Composed in the 1st millennium CE, each Purana centered on a deity and consisted of panca-laksana ("five facets"): sarga (primary creation), prati-sarga (secondary creation), manvantara (time cycles), vamsa (succession of deities/sages), and vamsanucarita.
Types: There are eighteen Mahapuranas and many Upa Puranas (subsidiary texts, often focusing on lesser deities). Associated texts include Sthala-Puranas and Mahatmyas (sacred topography/pilgrimage). Later, caste Puranas (e.g., Mallas, Srimalas, Dharmaranyas) became historically significant. Jainas also produced their own Puranas, offering a non-Brahmanical perspective.
Information: Upa Puranas provide insights into popular beliefs, customs, and festivals, tracing the interaction between Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical ideas that shaped regional configurations.

1.7 Law Books

Proliferation: The early medieval period saw the composition of numerous influential Dharmasastra compilations, digests, and commentaries, indicating the formalization of law and legal procedures to regulate social life.
Compilations:
- Chaturvimshatimata: Compiled teachings of 24 law givers.
- Jimutavahana: Wrote Vyavaharamatrika (procedural law) and Dayabhaga (inheritance laws).
Commentaries:
- Medatithi (9th century), Govindaraja (11th/12th century), Kulluka (12th century) on Manusmriti.
- Vijnaneshwara (11th-12th century) and Apararka (12th century) on Yajnavalkya Smriti. Vijnaneshvara’s Mitakshara became a key authority on Hindu law.
Other Works: Lakshmidhara’s Kritya Kalpataru (12th century) and Devanabhatta’s Smritichandrika (11th/12th century).

1.8 Poems, Songs and Other Literary Sources

Tamil Texts: Devotional songs of Alvars and Nayanars, and hagiographies of saints. Nandikkalambakam, an 80-stanza poem, eulogizes Pallava king Nandivarman III.
Kannada Works: Many associated with Jainism, composed under royal patronage of Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, and Chalukyas.
Sanskrit and Prakrit Works:
- Lekhapaddhati: From Gujarat, provides models of legal documents, offering historical information on trade and traders.
- Krishiparashara: From Bengal, deals with agriculture.
- Jain folk tales (dharma-kathas) from western India often feature merchants.
Mathematical Texts:
- Ganitasarasangraha (9th century) by Mahaviracharya.
- Lilavati (12th century) by Bhaskaracharya.
These provide incidental information on prices, weights, measures, wages, and coins.

1.9 Chinese Accounts

Pilgrim Records: Accounts by monks Xuanzang (c. 600-64 CE) and Yijing (635-713 CE) are vital for reconstructing Buddhist doctrines and practices in India.

1.10 Commentaries

Mid-1st Millennium CE: Many commentaries on Canonical and non-Canonical texts, especially Theravada Sangha, were composed, which in turn were commented upon.
Language: Pali was preferred for its wider reach, while Sanskrit was favored by Mahayanists.
Key Scholars and Works:
- Buddhaghosa (5th century CE, Sri Lanka): Visuddhimagga, Samantapasadika, Sumangalavilasini (authoritative Theravada perspectives).
- Buddhadatta (contemporary of Buddhaghosa): Madhuratha-vilasini (commentary on Buddhavamsa).
- Vamsatthappakasini (12th century): Commentary on Mahavamsa.
- Culavamsa: Sequel to Mahavamsa, contributing to the history of the sangha.
- Dathavamsa and Thupavamsa (13th century): Focused on the history of objects and relics (e.g., Tooth of the Buddha), validating Theravada amidst sectarian conflict.
- Rajaratnakara and Rajavali: Biographies of kings and royal succession, providing information on patrons of the Sangha.

1.11 Chronicles or Vamsavalis

Definition: Texts like Rajatarangini are chronicles of states, regions, or kingdoms, recording changes, particularly the transformation of small kingdoms into larger ones. They cover local events but reflect broader regional changes.
Rajatarangini (Kalhana, 1148 CE):
- Significance: Considered the first true historical writing from early India. Kalhana describes it as a kavya.
- Structure: Eight books (tarangas). First three cover history until 7th century CE, 4-6 until 11th century, and the longest last two cover the 12th century.
- Author's Background: Kalhana was the son of Canpaka, a minister at the court of the previous king (deposed and killed in 1101). His familiarity with court circles, despite not serving the current dynasty, allowed for independent judgments on rulers.
- Content: Focuses on Kashmir's past, understanding inexplicable royal behavior, and criticizing groups exploiting Kashmir. Kalhana aimed to represent the past "as it was" (itihasa), incorporating rulers like Ashoka, Kanishka, Mihirakula (figures in Mahayana Buddhist texts, not Puranas except Ashoka as a name). It includes legends, chronology from written records, and contemporary events.
- Methodology: Kalhana claimed to correct predecessors' chronology, fill gaps, and remove fictitious genealogies. He cited sources, including eleven rajakatha works, Suvrata's prabandha (collation of fragmentary chronicles), Nilamata Purana (local Purana), Ksemendra’s Nrpavali (list of kings), and local inscriptions (sasanas for temples/monasteries, often land grants with prasastipattas), and oral traditions.
- Karkota Dynasty (7th century CE, Kashmir): Book Four details its consolidation, linking its origin to Naga Karkota (deity/kinsman). Chinese annals corroborate references to King Candrapida requesting aid against Arabs in 713 CE, aligning chronology.
Chamba Vamsavali (Western Himalaya):
- Content: Records succession of rulers and events until 17th century, ending with the Chamba-Nurpur war (1642). It implicitly reveals kingdom formation, emergence of intermediaries, transition to caste society, and Puranic Hinduism.
- Capital Shift: Early focus on Brahmaur (Gaderan, habitat of Gaddi shepherds). Around 1st millennium CE, capital moved to Chamba on a fertile plateau.
- Structure: Three sections: origin myths/divine descent for royal lineages, garbled accounts of earlier rulers (borrowing from Puranic kshatriya lists), and evidence for kingdom/dynasty establishment (initially important kings, then virtually all).

1.12 Islamic Sources

Ghurian Conquest (late 12th century CE): An important event, leading to an independent Sultanate, foreign influences, and unification under a strong center. It attracted emigrants with diverse cultural traditions, including history writing.
Persian Historical Literature: Muslim elite considered history writing a key source after religious scripture and jurisprudence. Mughal period (16th century) saw further heights in this tradition.
Delhi Sultanate Sources (12th-1526 CE): Continuous Persian texts. Many authors were court officials, some independent scholars. Histories generally presented official versions, eulogizing reigning Sultans, and often borrowed from earlier works.
Other Persian Works:
- Abdu’r Razzaq’s Matla’us Sa’dain (travelogue).
- Tutsi’s Siyasatnama (administration & polity).
- Fakhr-i Mudabbir’s Adabu’l-Harb wa’as- Shuja’at (warfare).
Arabic Works:
- Ibn Battuta (Rihla) and Shihab-al Din al-Umari (Masalik al-absar Mamalik al-Ansar) provided travel accounts.
Key Historians and Works:
- Muhammad bin Mansur (Fakhr-i Mudabbir): Migrated from Ghazna to Lahore. Compiled Shajra-i-Ansab (genealogies of Prophet, companions, Muslim rulers, Ghurid ancestors). Appended Muqidimma (Introduction) after Sultan's assassination in 1206, narrating Qutbuddin Aibak's life and military exploits from 1192 CE to his accession in Lahore (1206). This is the first history of Ghurian conquest and Sultanate foundation. It eulogizes Sultan Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam but credits Aibak for conquest. Details Aibak's conciliatory policy towards Hindu chiefs, administrative reforms (renewed land-grants, fixed maintenance, abolished illegal wealth, one-fifth agricultural produce as land revenue).
- Mudbbir’s Adabu’l-Harb wa’as- Shuja’at: Dedicated to Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Chapters on king's duties, state departments, war tactics, horses. Incorporates Ghaznavid historical events.
- Hasan Nizami’s Tajul Ma’asir: Migrated from Nishapur to Delhi. Began compiling Aibak's achievements post-1206 accession for royal patronage. Describes his journey, the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) (omitting the first). Details events from 1192-1196. Stopped writing after Aibak's death (1210) due to disturbances, resumed when Iltutmish consolidated rule, starting narrative from 1203. Omits Aibak's conquests of Badaun (1197), Kanauj, Chandwar (1198). Despite hyperbolic praise, provides authentic information. Fails to describe Aibak's friendly treatment of local chiefs. Ends with Iltutmish's capture of Lahore (1217).
- Minhaj Siraj Juzjani’s Tabaqat-i Nasiri: Epoch-making. Minhaj, an emigrant scholar from Khorasan, trained as a jurist, associated with Ghurid courts. Migrated to India in 1227, served Nasiruddin Qubacha (head of Firuzi Madrassa in Ucch), then Sultan Iltutmish (Qazi of Gwalior), Sultan Razia (head of Madrassa-i Nasiri in Delhi), and Chief Qazi under Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. Wrote history of Islam until 1259 CE. Adopted Tabaqat System (separate sections for each dynasty, completed in 1259). Last five sections provide valuable information on Central Asian, Persian, Indian dynasties, and Mongol activities under Chingis Khan. Objective account of Ghur rulers. Information on Khwarizm Shahi dynasty and Mongol rise (not in Ata Malik Juvaini, Rahiduddin Fazlullah). Purpose: inform Delhi Sultanate readers about Mongol victories and destruction. Drew on immigrants, merchants, and first-hand experience fighting Mongols in Khurasan. Last tabaqa invaluable for Mongol rise/dissolution of empire (1259 CE). Sections 20 and 21 describe Sultans from Aibak to Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah and Iltutmish's nobles. Conveyed critical information subtly, criticizing Iltutmish by highlighting rivals' qualities. Praised Malik Saifuddin Aibak for detesting seizure of nobles' assets. Ziauddin Barani paid homage to Minhaj.

1.13 Archaeological Sources

Underexplored Field: Archaeology of the early medieval period is still less explored, with most excavations focusing on early historical sites.
Meagre Remains: Limited work has yielded poor remains and archaeological data. Coins are few. Habitation remains are often undiscovered, or layers show poor remains, supporting R.S. Sharma's theory of urban decline.
Site Evidence:
- Atranjikhera, Kausambi, Hastinapur, Sringaverpura, Ahicchatra: Bereft of material remains or disturbed records, with flimsy structures, few stone images, and pottery. Hastinapur Period V (11th century CE) shows brick-bat structures, pottery, iron, terracotta, and three stone images, often merging with post-1200 CE layers.
- Sonkh (Mathura): Destruction and decay, unconnected walls, poor quality structures using brick-bats and rubble. Stone plaques with Hindu deities found.
- Lal Kot (Delhi): Rajput period (11th-12th centuries CE) yielded rubble walls, mud/lime floors, red wares. Early Sultanate phase (12th-14th centuries CE) yielded more structures and artifacts.
- Purana Qila (Delhi): Post-Gupta period marked by three phases of baked/mud-brick structures, often re-using earlier bricks. Finds include decorated potsherds, beads, damaged stone sculpture, red ware (knife-edged bowl distinctive). Rajput period (10th-12th centuries CE) also used re-used bricks, mud-floors, hearths. Impressive fortification-wall (1.5m basal width, over 30m length) attributed to Tomars.
- General Finds: Copper coins, carnelian beads, terracotta objects, ornate moulded bricks, small Vishnu figure in stone. Pottery mainly red/black wares, sometimes painted/stamped/incised.
- Rajghat (Varanasi): Period 300-700 CE shows advanced settlement planning, large houses (7.08 × 6.25 to 2.30 × 1.30 m), pillared halls, underground structures, wells, brick drains, regular city layout, industrial/religious structures. Period V (700-1200 CE) has brick walls, two big buildings, architectural fragments.
- Pallavamedu (Tamil Nadu): Archaeological evidence for Pallavas. Three occupation periods: Period I (pottery, artifacts), Period II (mud floors, hearths, platforms), Period III (pottery, disturbed structures).
- Tamil Nadu Dynasties: Excavations at Pandya (Korkai), Chola (Kurumbanmedu, Palyarai), Hoysala (Kannanur) sites yielded artifacts, but few structural remains (irrigation system at Kannanur, brick wall at Palayarai).
- Banavasi (North Kanara, Karnataka): Subject of recent survey. From 7th-16th centuries CE, Shiva temples replaced stupas. Settlement expanded, indicated by pottery scatters, reservoirs, basalt stone manufacturing, iron slag. Shifted to a different zone.
- Aihole (Karnataka): Focus on temple complex. Recent survey shows early Chalukyan temples were part of a larger settlement system with pottery scatters, reservoirs, large architectural complexes, pillared halls, room blocks, stone quarries, mortars. Pottery mostly jars (cooking/storage).
Theories: Despite poor remains, early medieval archaeology supports theories of urban decay, feudalism, Third Urbanization, emergence/continuation of urban settlements (Siyadoni), trade routes, traders, guilds, trade with Southeast Asia.
Potential: Archaeology has great potential to correct assumptions from limited work.

Unit 2: The Political Scenario I - Rajputs: Rise and Struggle to Power

This unit examines the emergence and evolution of regional polities in western and central India, focusing on the Rajputs. It analyzes the nature of political authority distribution, the structure of Rajput polity, and the patterns of power formation and consolidation.

2.1 Introduction to Rajput Polity

Conventional vs. Recent Studies: Traditional Indian polity studies emphasize dynastic genealogies and chronologies. Recent studies, however, focus on state formation, polity structure, and the nature of power and political control, seeking a microscopic view of regional formations.
Regional Focus: The emergence and evolution of regional polity in western and central India (modern Rajasthan, Gujarat, most of Madhya Pradesh) are key.
Continuous Formation: Regional political formations are important because of frequent shifts in power centers and continuous formation of new polities.
Exploitation of Instability: Rajput clans (Gurjara Pratihara, Guhila, Paramara, Cahamana) and Kalachuris and Candellas exploited post-Gupta and post-10th century political uncertainties, dominating the scene from 8th to 13th centuries.
Lineage Influence: Unlike northern and eastern India, this region shows lineage influence in political authority distribution.
Feudal Polity: Dispersal of administrative and fiscal powers, along with bureaucratic changes based on new landholdings, characterized the feudal polity.

2.2 The Rise of Rajput Dynasties

Arab Invasions (712-13 CE): Arab invasions of Sindh and Multan, followed by overrunning Marwar, Malwa, and Broach, significantly altered the political map of western India and the Deccan.
Emergence of New Powers: Powers like the Rashtrakutas and Rajput clans (Paramaras, Cahamanas) emerged, playing important roles from the 8th century.
Obscure Origins: Lineages like Paramaras and Cahamanas, with obscure origins, gained prominence through inter-state conflicts involving major powers like Gurjara Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas.
Gradual Process: The rise of Rajputs was not sudden but a total process within the existing hierarchical political structure.

2.3 Origin Legends: Their Political Implications

Complexity: The origin of Rajput dynasties is highly complex and controversial.
Claimed Lineages:
- Lunar Family (Chandravamshi): Based on gotrochhara.
- Solar Race: Based on old kavyas, myths of solar origin depict them as kshatriyas created in kali Yuga to eliminate mlecchas (foreigners).
- Fire-born (Agnikula): Rajasthani bards and chroniclers.
Agnikula Myth:
- Paramaras: A court poet recorded that the founder of the Paramara house originated from sage Vasishtha's firepit on Mount Abu. This warrior (named paramara—slayer of the enemy) forcibly took a wish-granting cow from Vishwamitra and returned it to Vasishtha, establishing a highly esteemed race. Paramara inscriptions corroborate this origin.
- Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Cahamanas: Rajasthani bards extended the fire origin to these clans. Tales describe Agastya and other sages performing a sacrifice on Mount Abu, which demons defiled. Vasishtha created three warriors (Pratihara, Chalukya, Paramara) who failed to repel demons. Then, a four-armed figure, Cahuvana, emerged from a new pit and defeated the demon. This myth is seen as poetic imagination by bards seeking fine pedigrees for their patrons.
Political Significance: The widespread practice of new social groups claiming kshatriya status in the early medieval period was a symbol for legitimizing newly acquired power.
Gradual Social Ascent: Early and medieval Rajput clans, a mixed caste of petty chiefs, gradually achieved political eminence. Their rise correlated with their movement towards respectable social status, acquiring a kshatriya lineage.
Post-Accession Claims: Dynasties claimed descent from ancient kshatriyas long after gaining power. For example, Gurjara Pratiharas, chronologically the earliest and most important Rajput dynasty, claimed solar descent from Lakshmana (Rama's brother) in a late 9th-century inscription by King Bhoja-I, linking themselves to the heroic age of the Epics during their imperial prominence.
Legitimization: Entry into the Rajput fold was achieved through political power, which was then legitimized by claiming mythical kshatriya linkages.

2.4 Distribution of Political Authority

Non-Uniform Pattern: Political power distribution in India was not uniform.
Lineage Networks: In medieval western India, political authority was organized by a network of lineages (kula, vamsha) within a monarchical polity. Rajput dynasties like the Cahamanas (Rajasthan) and Paramaras (southern Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa) exemplify clan-based authority.
Proliferation of Rajput Clans:
- Paramaras: Dharanivaraha of Abu divided Navkot Marwar among nine brothers, leading to at least four Paramara lines (Abu, Bhinmal, Jalor, Vagada) besides Malwa.
- Cahamanas: Cahamanas of Broach and Pratabgarh. Shakambhari Cahamanas branched into Nadol, Jalor, Satyapura, and Abu, controlling a vast region in western Rajasthan and Gujarat for five centuries.
- Other Clans: Chapas ruled principalities like Bhillamala, Vadhiar, Anahilapataka. Guhilas ruled Udaipur and Mewar.
- Formation Process: New clans and sub-divisions emerged through acquiring political power, integrating into the Rajput network.
Formation of Lineage Power:
- Colonization of New Areas: Expansion of settlements, often through military strength. Chauhan kingdom of Nadol (Saptashata) became Saptasahasrikadesha by a Chauhan chief annexing villages and killing chiefs.
- Suppression of Tribal Populations: Western Indian powers expanded at the expense of tribal settlements. Mandor Pratihara Kakkuka resettled areas inhabited by Abhiras. Shabaras, Bhillas, and Pulindas were suppressed.
- Guhilas and Cahamanas: Guhila settlements in Rajasthan (7th century) traced movement from Gujarat, succeeding Bhil tribal chiefdoms. Chauhans moved from Ahichhatrapura to Jangaldesha (Shakambhari), colonizing it. Lakshmana, son of Vakpati-I, suppressed Medas, built a band of troopers, became master of 20 horses, and built a palace in Nadol.
- Lineage Replacement: Lineage power could form by replacing one lineage with another, e.g., Cahamanas of Jalor (a splinter of Nadol Cahamana branch). Kirtipala, dissatisfied with his land share, attacked Jalor (Paramara capital) and made it his new kingdom. Bharatravaddha-II founded the Cahamana line of Broach with Pratihara Nagabhata-I's help, ousting Gurjaras amidst Arab invasions, assuming title mahasamantadhipati in 756 CE.
- Interacting Processes: Lineage power formation involved multiple, interconnected channels.
Process of Rising in Social Status:
- Ethnic Group Competition: Large ethnic groups successfully competed for political power, laying foundations for large states.
- Regional Power Emergence: Lineages, starting from local agrarian bases, became regional powers by integrating other local lineages. Gujaratra, Gujarabhumi, Gurjjarashtra (contiguous with southern Rajasthan) was a base for many lineages.
- Gurjara-Pratihara Example: Attained political dominance and rose in social status, acquiring a kshatriya lineage.
- Upward Mobility: Potential and dominant power structures emerged from local agrarian bases through upward mobility in favorable political circumstances.

2.5 Consolidation of Lineage Power

Land Distribution: From the late 10th century, land was distributed among Cahamana ruling lineages (King Simharaja, his brothers, queens had personal estates). Assignments like grasa, grasabhumi, or bhukti were common in Nadol, higher in Rajasthan. This process developed with clan spread.
Administrative Units: Units of villages (mandala or bhukti) became local control centers. Units of 84 villages (chaurasia) spread from Saurashtra to Rajasthan, facilitating land distribution and political control among ruling elites (10th-12th centuries).
Fortress Construction: Coincided with large-scale fortress construction for defense and control over rural surroundings, aiding ruling family consolidation.
Marriage Networks: Inter-clan marriages among ruling Rajput clans had significant political implications, fostering collaboration. Guhilas extended relations with Chaulkyas, Rashtrakutas, Chedis, Hunas, Cahamana, Paramara, primarily within the Rajput clan category, indicating political choices among the ruling elite.

2.6 Nature and Structure of Polity

Disparate Zones: Political geography of early medieval western India shows political authority formed in disparate zones by proliferating lineages. Ruling lineages did not always correspond to fixed territories, leading to new ruling families establishing themselves (e.g., Guhilas of Mewar).
Political Instability:
- Military Mobilization: Could displace lineages and create new power networks. Vagada Paramara branch (9th century) was a feudatory of Malwa. Chamundaraja defied Malwa Paramaras in late 11th century, becoming independent. Vagada was lost to Malwa in early 12th century.
- Succession Disputes: Maharaja Shurapala ruled Vagada by 1155, but was from a different family. This line was uprooted by 1179, and a Guhila king, styling himself maharajadhiraja, ruled with Chalukya overlord's help.
Bureaucratic Structure:
- Stable Government: Chalukyas, Paramaras, and Cahamanas needed powerful bureaucracies.
- Officers: Numerous officers assisted state affairs. Lekhapaddhati lists government departments (karanas) applicable to Chalukya government (Gujarat).
- Departments (karanas):
  - Sri-karana (Chief secretariat)
  - Vyaya Karana (accounts department)
  - Vyapara-karana (general supervision of trade, import/export duties)
  - Mandapika-karna (tax collection secretariat)
  These were headed by ministers (mahamatyas).
- Ministerial Ranks: Mahamantrins or mahapradhanas (chief ministers) held royal seal, supervised departments. Dandanayaka or senapati (military officer) commanded cavalry and baladhipas (officers in charge of military stations). Administration controlled by Baladhikarana at capital.
- Other Officials: Dutaka (conveyed royal grant sanctions), Mahapratihara (Lord Chamberlain), bhandagarika (provisions).
- Mahasandhivigrahika: Minister of peace and war, conveyor of grants. Chalukyan mahamatya mahasandhhivigrahika also in charge of Sri-Karana and Mudra (passports, import duties).
- Mahakshapatalika: Head of accounts/record office, registered land grants under Paramara administration.
Lineage State and Feudal Polity:
- Interrelated Polities: Post-Gupta period saw horizontal spread of state society, with differentiated polities (including clan-based ruling lineages) sharing common components across early medieval political structures in western and central India.
- Material Base: Lineage-based states consolidated power through landholding, not just political power. Land grabbing by ruling families was evident.
- Governmental Functions & Landholding: Important governmental functions became linked to landholding. Gurjara Pratiharas' rule shows chiefs of Cahamana, Guhila, Chalukya clans holding estates. Mathanadeva (Gurjara Pratihara lineage) claimed svabhogavapta (own share). Nadol plate (1161) refers to junior prince receiving twelve villages.
- Paramara Land Grants: Less frequent clan-based land grants, but more groups of villages mentioned (12, 24, 36 multiples). A 1017 Paramara inscription mentions a district of 52 villages, but clan system's coverage of the kingdom is unclear.
- Feudal Polity Hypothesis: Lineage state or integrative polity lacked an alternative material base. Different foci/levels of power across major political structures in western and central India reiterate the validity of the feudal polity hypothesis.
- Samanta System: Not uniform, encompassing a wide range of statuses corresponding to the landed aristocracy.
- Feudatories (mandalika): Ruled territories under major powers, sometimes styled maharajadhiraja, mahamandalesvara, mahamandalikas, mahasamantas. Important feudatories of Chalukyas: Paramaras of Abu, Cahamanas of Jalor. Minor ones: Mer king Jagamalla, Paramara Somesvara.
- Landed Intermediaries: Thakkuras, ranakas, bhoktas held land in Cahamana state (Nadol, Jalor), supplying soldiers to overlord.
- Paramara Feudatory Chiefs:
  1. Rewarded with land for services.
  2. Built principalities and acknowledged premier line's supremacy (Paramaras of Vagada, Kiradu).
  3. Carved out principalities by force against central authority (Paramara Mahakumaras).
  4. Defeated and forced to accept suzerainty (vassals).
- Autonomy and Sub-infeudation: Big feudatory chiefs (Paramaras of Ambudamandala, Paramara Mahakumaras) had internal autonomy, creating sub-feudatories and appointing officers. They could assign taxes, alienate villages, and exempt people from taxation. This practice of granting land and administrative rights is called sub-infeudation, evident under Pratiharas and Chalukyas of Gujarat.
- Hierarchical Political Formation: Samanta system encompassed ranks like ranaka, rauta, thakkura, samanta, mahasamanta.
- Official Ranks & Land Grants: Paramara official ranks rarely received land grants in 11th century. Chalukyas of Gujarat granted large territories to vassals and high officers, who merged over time. Key officials paid by regular taxes (11th-12th centuries). Candella inscriptions (late 12th-early 13th century) enjoined feudatories/officials to give up perquisites in gifted villages, with references to resumption of rights.
- Feudatory Obligations: Fiscal and military (supplying soldiers). Authority derivative, dependent on conditions. Paramaras of Vagada fought for imperial Paramaras of Malwa. Paramaras of Abu, Kiradu, Jalor died for Chalukyas of Gujarat.
- Assertion of Independence: Feudatory chiefs sought independence. Guhilas of Mewar accepted Paramara overlordship after defeat but tried to re-establish position. Cahamana Katudeva asserted independence, leading to Chalukya Kumarapala depriving him of principality and direct administration. Vikramasimha of Abu was removed, Yasodhavala installed. Dharavarsha served Chalukyas but turned against Bhima-II.
- Feudatory Duty: Help suzerain against enemy, conquer new territories, bring princes under vassalage. Swore loyalty at new king's accession, paid tribute (cash/kind). No fixed rules for obligations.
- Political Instability: Samanta-feudatory system caused instability. Strength of bonds depended on overlord's personality. Generals entrusted with territories became feudatory chiefs, but personal relations faded, leading to independence. Samantas often lacked permanent bonds, willing to shift allegiance for privileges.

Unit 3: The Political Scenario II - Rashtrakutas and Palas

This unit explores the origin, emergence, and political organization of the Rashtrakutas and Palas, two powerful kingdoms that shaped early medieval India.

3.1 Introduction to Rashtrakutas and Palas

Three Powerful Kingdoms (c. 750-1000 CE): Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas vied for hegemony.
Rashtrakuta Dominance: Dominated the Deccan for nearly 200 years (until late 10th century), controlling parts of north and south India. Longest-lasting of the three, acting as a bridge between north and south India economically and culturally. Promoted north Indian traditions in the south.
Achievements: India reached new heights in polity, economy, culture, education, and religion during this phase.
Palas of Bengal: Bengal, historically part of Maurya and Gupta empires, gained significance with Sasanka (606-637 CE). Gopala founded the Pala dynasty after Sasanka's death. The Kaivarta rebellion significantly weakened the Palas.

3.2 The Rashtrakutas: Nomenclature and Origins

Nomenclature: 'Rashtrakuta' means 'chief of Rashtra' (division or kingdom), suggesting they were provincial officers or administrators. Inscriptions of various dynasties mention this designation. Dantidurga, founder of the imperial Rashtrakuta line, was a Chalukya subordinate and high official.
Origins: Historians are uncertain. Inscriptions claim Satyaki branch of Yaduvamsha and Tunga line, following Puranic pedigrees. Nilakantha Shastri suggests Kannada origin, with Kannada as their mother tongue despite Sanskrit use. The title Lattalura-puravareshvara (eminent lord of Lattalura) points to Latur (Bidar district, Karnataka) as their original home.
Geographical Home: Deccan (Telugu-speaking population, Maharashtra, parts of northern Karnataka).
Dynastic Strength: Known for brave warriors and able administrators, forming a vast empire through continuous conflicts with Pratiharas, Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, Cholas, Pallavas of Kanchi, and Pandyas of Madurai.
Context of Rise: Pallavas were in decline, Cholas emerging. No strong northern power interfered with Deccan affairs, providing opportunity. Thapar notes their central geographical position led to involvement in northern and southern wars, expanding their empire. Karashima highlights favorable agricultural environment. Thapar also points to control of western seaboard and trade with West Asia (Arabs) for wealth to fund political ambitions.

3.3 The Rashtrakuta Polity

Branches: Several Rashtrakuta branches ruled different parts of early medieval India.
Earliest Ruling Family: Founded by Mananka in Malkhed, with Palidhvaja banner and Garuda-lanchhana.
Another Family: In Betul district, Madhya Pradesh. Antroli-Chharoli inscription (757 CE) mentions four generations: Karka I, Dhruva, Govinda, Karka II (collateral branch of Malkhed line in Lata, Gujarat).
Imperial Line Founder: Dantidurga, contemporary of Karka II, founded the imperial Rashtrakuta line, fixing his capital at Manyakheta (Malkhed) near Sholapur. The Manyakheta branch assimilated others.
Dynastic Chart (with titles):
- Danti-varman
- Indra I
- Govindaraja
- Kakka I
- Indra II
- Dantidurga (Prithivivallabha, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Paramabhattaraka): Real founder of lasting empire. Ellora inscription (742 CE) mentions titles prithivivallabha and khagavaloka. Exploited disturbed conditions in Lata and Malava after Arab invasions. Attacked Kanchi (Pallava capital), allied with Nandivarman Pallavamalla (married his daughter Reva). Captured Chalukyan outlying territories, defeated Kirtivarman II. Samangadh inscription (754 CE) records overthrow of Kirtivarman II, assumed full imperial rank. Territory comprised "four lakhs of villages," over half of Badami Chalukyan Empire.
- Krishnaraja I (Shubhatunga, Akalavarsha, Rajadhiraja, Parameshvara): Succeeded Dantidurga (childless) in 756 CE after civil war, due to popularity. Titles Shubhatunga (high prosperity) and Akalavarsha (constant rainer). Expanded kingdom in all directions, overthrowing Badami Chalukyas. Bhandak plates (772 CE) show rule over all Madhya Pradesh. Overcame Rahappa (Kakka II of Lata), gained Palidhvaja banner, imperial title Rajadhiraja Parameshvara. Conquered Southern Konkana, established lordship over Ganga kingdom. Son Govinda compelled Vijayaditya I of Vengi Chalukya to submit. Empire covered modern Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
- Govinda II (Prabhutavarsha and Vikramavaloka): Succeeded Krishnaraja I (772-775 CE). Titles Prabhutavarsha (profuse rainer) and Vikramavaloka (heroic look). Omitted in later grants due to civil war with younger brother Dhruva. Allied with Pallava, Ganga, Vengi, Malava rulers but defeated by Dhruva.
- Dhruva (Nirupama, Kali-Vallabha, Dharavarsha, Shrivallabha): Assumed sovereignty after defeating Govinda II. Punished allies of Govinda II. Made ablest son Govinda III king during his lifetime.
- Govinda III (Jagattunga, Kirti-Narayana, Janavallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala, Prabhutavarsha, Srivallabha) (793-814): Great Rashtrakuta ruler. Quelled elder brothers' rebellions in south. Expedition against Nagabhatta of Kanauj, annexed Malawa, Kosala, Kalinga, Vengi, Dahala, Odraka. Southern campaign (digvijaya) terrified Kerala, Pandya, Chola kings, withered Pallavas, bound Gangas. Spread Rashtrakuta fame from Himalayas to Cape Comorin.
- Amoghavarsha I (Sarva) (Nripatunga, Atishayadhavala, Maharaja-Skanda, Vira-Narayana) (814-878 CE): Govinda's successor, ruled 68 years. Preferred digvijaya in religion, literature, architecture over war. Titles Nripatunga (exalted), Atisayadhavala (white conduct), Maharaja-shanda (best), Vira-Narayana (heroic). Interested in religious traditions, company of Jaina monks. Author and patron of authors (Jinasena, author of Adipurana). Promoted Jainism and Brahmanical religion, performed rituals. Great builder, celebrated as maker of capital Manyakheta.
- Krishna II (Akalavarsha and Shubhatunga) (c. 879 CE): Succeeded Amoghavarsha I. Not successful in curbing rebellions. Terminated Lata viceroyalty. Wars against Vengi and Cholas resulted in disaster, exile.
- Indra III (Nityavarsha, Rattakandarpa, Kirti-Narayana, Rajamartanda) (915 CE): Re-established empire. Military achievements: Rashtrakuta forces through Lata and Malawa to Kalpi and Kanauj, dethroned Mahipala. Most powerful ruler (Al-Masudi: Balhara/Vallabharaja greatest king, Indian rulers accepted suzerainty).
- Amoghavarsha II (d. 927 CE): Succeeded Indra III, reigned one year.
- Govinda IV (Suvarnavarsha, Prabhutavarsha, Chanakyachaturmukha, Nripati Trinetra, Vikranta Narayana): Succeeded Amoghavarsha II. Celebrated coronation with pomp. Not a good king, provoked feudatory resentment. Defeated and dethroned, crown transferred to Amoghavarsha III.
- Amoghavarsha III (934-35 CE): Short reign (4-5 years). Gentle, peaceful, wise, religious. Promoted royal family by granting villages to brahmanas, building Shiva temples. Son Krishna III managed state affairs.
- Krishna III (Akalavarsha) (939 CE): Succeeded Amoghavarsha III. Engaged in struggles against Paramaras of Malava and Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Extensive military conquest against Chola ruler Parantaka I (949 CE), annexed northern Chola empire, distributed it among servants. Pressed to Rameshwaram, set up victory pillar, built temple.
- Khottiga (late 966 CE/early 967 CE): Succeeded Krishna III. Opponents united against him. Manyakheta sacked, plundered, burnt (972 CE) by Paramara kings. Emperor abandoned Manyakheta.
- Karka II: Succeeded Khottiga, overthrown by Tailla II, Chalukya. Bhandana grant (997 CE) and Kharepatan plates (1008 CE) record Tailapa's defeat of Karka, ending the Rashtrakuta Empire.

3.4 Rashtrakuta Administration

Empire Size: Vast empire in south India, extending to northern parts, comprising ~7.5 lakh villages.
Monarchy: Powerful monarchy at core, supported by numerous feudatories. Realm increasingly feudalized with each king's reign.
Administrative System: Based on Gupta Empire and Harsha's kingdom (north), and Chalukyas (Deccan).
King's Role: Fountainhead of all powers (administration, commander-in-chief). Responsible for law and order. Expected absolute loyalty.
Succession: Generally hereditary, but not rigidly fixed. Eldest son often succeeded, but younger brothers sometimes deposed them (e.g., Dhruva, Govinda IV).
Ministers: Advised by hereditary ministers from leading families (chief minister, foreign affairs, revenue, treasurer, armed forces, chief justice, purohita).
Directly Administered Areas: Divided into:
- Rashtra (province): Headed by Rashtrapati (governor), sometimes a vassal king.
- Vishaya (district): Headed by Visayapati.
- Bhukti (smaller unit).
Assistants: Rashtramahattaras and Vishayamahattaras assisted provincial and district governors. Primary purpose: land revenue collection, law and order. Officials paid by rent-free land grants.
Feudatories: Essential for empire formation and administration. Helped in battles, expanded empire. Rewarded with land grants for loyalty/bravery (e.g., Taila, Ganga Butugga under Krishna III).
Empire Structure: Comprised directly administered areas and autonomous areas governed by vassal chiefs. Vassals had general obligation of loyalty, paid tribute, supplied troops. Required to attend overlord's darbar, sometimes intermarried.
Military: Large, well-organized infantry, cavalry, war-elephants (Arab chronicles). Power reflected in numerous forts garrisoned by special troops and independent commanders. Horses imported from Arabia, West Asia, Central Asia. Infantry included regular, irregular soldiers, and levies from vassal chiefs. Regular forces often hereditary. No war chariots.
Village Administration: Basic unit. Headed by hereditary headman and accountant (paid by rent-free land). Assisted by grama-mahajana or grama-mahattara (village elder). In Karnataka, village committees managed schools, tanks, temples, roads, receiving percentage of revenue.
Town Administration: Similar committees, including heads of trade guilds. Koshta-pala or kotwal responsible for law and order in cities.
Feudalization: Increased hereditary elements weakened village committees. Central rule struggled to assert authority, leading to feudalization.

3.5 The Palas

Bengal's Early History: Part of Maurya and Gupta empires. Sasanka (606-637 CE) was the first significant ruler, extending sovereignty beyond Bengal (capital Karnasuvarna), even against Kanauj. His military success led to hostilities with Thanesar (Harshavardhana), who conquered Sasanka's empire after his death.
Period of Anarchy: Sasanka's death led to political decline, invasions by Yasovarman of Kanauj, Lalitaditya of Kashmir, and King of Kamrupa. Central authority weakened, independent chiefs rose.
Gopala (750-775 CE): Elected by chiefs to end matsyanyaya (law of the jungle). Founded Pala dynasty, consolidated rule, brought stability. Accession date uncertain, died ~780 CE.
Dharmpala (succeeded Gopala): Described by R.C. Majumdar as one of Bengal's greatest kings. Crucial role in Tripartite Struggle (Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas) for control over Kannauj and northern India. Achieved supreme position for a while. Military campaigns detailed in Khalimpur copper plate inscriptions. Patronized Buddhism, founded many monasteries, including famous Vikramshila University.
Devapala (ruled ~40 years): Succeeded Dharmpala. Fame reached Indian Archipelago. Powerful king, last of the strong Pala rulers.
Decline: Succeeded by Vigrahapala (short reign, preferred ascetic life), then Narayanapala, marking decline.
Tripartite Struggle: Dharmpala and Devapala gained fame through victories. Palas expanded westward, Pratiharas eastward, leading to conflict. First encounter near Prayagraj (Allahabad), Pala king uncertain (Gopala or Dharmpala). Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja (Pratihara) and Dharmpala (Ganga Yamuna doab), starting the struggle.
Rashtrakuta Triumph & Pala Recovery: Rashtrakutas initially triumphed, but Dhruva's death led to chaos. Govinda III fought alliance of twelve southern kings. Palas and Pratiharas recovered. Dharmpala quickly regained empire, acknowledged by northern states, captured Kannauj, placed his nominee, consecrated himself as overlord. Suzerainty accepted in central Punjab, Sindhu, Kangra valley, East Punjab, Jaipur, Malwa, Berar. Bengal became supreme power.
Pratihara Recovery: Nagabhatta (Vatsaraja's successor) recovered, defeated Dharmpala's nominee, then Dharmpala. Conquered large parts of Dharmpala's territory.
Govinda III's Intervention: Dharmpala sought Govinda III's aid. Govinda III undertook military expedition, forced Nagabhatta to flee, overran his territory. Unable to sustain conquests due to internal dissensions.
Dharmpala's Final Recovery: Recovered empire, died ~815 CE. Son Devapala undisputed ruler of large north India. Defeated Dravidas, Gurjaras, Hunas, conquered Utkala, Kamarupa. Court poet described empire from Himalayas to Vindhyas, Bay of Bengal to Arabian Sea.
Pala Decline Post-Devapala: Ruled as local power in eastern India. Faced invasions/raids by Kalachuris, Candellas, Rashtrakutas. Kambojas occupied north/west Bengal (late 10th century). Chola king Rajendra Chola and a Chalukya king invaded.
Mahipala I: Successfully defended kingdom against Kalachuris, Cholas, Chalukyas, recovered territories from Kambojas. But south/west Bengal ruled by independent chiefs.
Successors' Struggles: Nayapala and Vigrahapala III struggled against Kalachuris of Tripuri. Mahipala II's reign saw upheavals, vassal chiefs revolted, Mahipala II defeated and killed. Divya (Kaivarta caste official) controlled north Bengal. Mahipala II's brothers (Surapala II, Ramapala) took shelter in Magadha. Ramapala took over after Surapala II's death, but most of Bengal was out of Pala control. Varman dynasty ruled east Bengal, Divya ruled north Bengal.
Ramapala's Restoration: Mobilized chiefs, defeated Divya's son, recaptured north Bengal, executed Bhima. Forced Varman ruler of east Bengal to submit. Conquered Kamarupa, expedition against Gahadavalas, interfered in Odisha politics. Restored Pala strength/prestige to a large extent.
Disintegration: Pala kingdom disintegrated under his sons Kumarapala and Madanapala.
Historical Analysis: Dynastic accounts, battles, victories, defeats are manifestations of how polity evolved, worthy of serious analysis, not just cataloguing.

3.6 The Nature of Polity under the Palas

Royal Titles: Pala kings were referred to as Parambhattaraka, Parameshwara, and Maharajadhiraja.
Land Grants: Gave permanent land grants to brahmanas, priests, temples, and Buddhist monasteries, carrying economic and administrative perquisites. Specifically related to law and order and justice. A Pala grant (802 A.D.) mentions Dasagramika (official in north Bengal) receiving one kula of land. Land grants also given to Kaivartas (peasants).
Feudatories: Pala records mention rajas, Rajputras, Ranakas, Rajarajanakas, Mahasamantas, Mahasamantadhipatis, likely feudatories receiving land for military services. No evidence of sub-infeudation under Palas.
Royal Officials: Administered Bengal and Bihar. Titles included Maha-daussadhasadhanika, Maha-kartakrtika, Mahasandhivigrahika.
Loci of Power: Palas operated from Pataliputra, Mudgagiri, Ramavati, Vataparvataka, Vilasapura or Haradhama, Sahasaganda, Kancanapura, and Kapilavaska (all on Ganga). Tributaries visited royal victory camps.
Village Administration: Villages grouped into units of one and ten under Gramapati and Dasagramika (royal officials). Few epigraphic evidences for service grants.

3.7 Kaivarta Rebellion

Event: Revolt of Kaivartas against Pala kings in late 11th century, main theme of Sandhyakaranandin’s Ramacharita.
Outcome: Overthrew Palas from Varendra (ancestral territory), king Mahipala killed. Senas emerged victorious later, integrating Bengal's sub-regions.
Interpretations: Early works saw it as a revolt of samantas due to weakening Palas. R.S. Sharma viewed it as a peasant revolt due to feudal suppression.
Details: Kaivarta chief Divya led revolt. Ramapala (Mahipala's younger brother) sought samanta support, raided Varendra (Sivaraja), then invaded with Pala army, confronted Bhima (Divya's nephew), recaptured Varendra, executed Bhima.
Recent Research: Highlighted fluctuating power relations between Palas and samantas. Samantas aimed to encroach on royal rights (control over donated land to religious institutions). Pala attempts to curtail samanta power by changing land grants caused friction.
Mass Uprising: Later, other social groups supported rebels, turning it into a mass uprising. Taxation by Pala regime was a social cause of unrest. Growing power of brahmana donees (greater control over labor/agrarian resources) and their assistance to royal administration (tighter fiscal control, accurate production estimation) created conflict with samantas.
Impact: Palas appeased cultivators, resumed cultivation. Though Varendra was recaptured, Palas' position weakened due to dependence on samantas. Led to their ousting from Bengal and Sena rise.

Unit 4: The Political Scenario III - Cholas and Chalukyas

This unit focuses on the Cholas and the Chalukyas of Kalyana, examining their territorial expansion, administration, institutional structures, military achievements, and cultural contributions during the early medieval period.

4.1 Introduction to Cholas and Chalukyas

Cholas: Most powerful peninsular polity, with Kaveri valley as its core. Established the most enduring regional state in the Tamil macro-region.
Chalukyas of Kalyana: Also known as Later-Chalukyas (succeeding Chalukyas of Badami/Western Chalukyas).
Unit Focus: Chola kings, officials, chiefs, administration; Chalukya military achievements and cultural flourishing.

4.2 The Cholas

Rise to Eminence: Cholas emerged in the 9th century CE when Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur from Muttarayas (Pallava feudatory). They controlled Pallava territories and subdued Pandyan power.
Resource Base: State sustained by fertile Kaveri valley.
Expansion and Administration: Under Rajaraja I and successors, various feudatory chiefs were subjugated. Earlier Nadu was regrouped into Valanadu and placed under subdued chiefs. Landed magnates were incorporated into the state, given prestigious titles, and assigned administrative/military duties (including land revenue collection/assessment).

4.2.1 Chola Kingship

Origin: Traced to Suryavamsha. Mythical traditions in inscriptions (prashastis) like Tiruvalangad Copper Plates, Larger Leiden Plates, Anbil Plates, Kanya Kumari inscription of Vira Rajendra, interspersed with historical figures, legitimized Chola rule.
Influence: Prashastis based on Itihaasa-Purana tradition, dominance of Sanskritic and Brahmanical traditions, legacy of Sangam period.
Legitimacy: Genealogies attributed eminent lineage to kings. Post-Rajaraja I's 8th year, Tamil Meykirtis (narrating military exploits, inscribed on stone, addressing Tamil landed magnates) lacked genealogical records.
Kshatriya Status: Cholas claimed Kshatriya origin (e.g., Rajaraja's title Kshatriyasikhamani). Varman suffix (Sanskritic) added to names (Adityavarman, Parantaka Varman) for kshatriya status.
Coronation Names: Practice of assuming names during coronation (Prakesarivarman, Rajakesarivarman, Arumolivarman).
Charters: Contained Sanskrit prashastis and genealogies, with grant details in Tamil.
Ceremonies: Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara ceremonies performed. Anointment ceremony claimed kshatriya position.
Land Grants: Vira Chola's grant indicates brahmana moral preacher (dharmopadeshta) advised land grants for ancestors' heaven. Actual motives: resource redistribution (land, gold, cattle), legitimacy from brahmanas. Grants converted unsettled areas into agrarian settlements, not merely charitable.
Royal Titles: Rajaraja called Ulakalanda Perumel (great one who measured earth like Trivikrama) and Shiva (controlled Bhargava Rama's land).

4.3 Local Administration: Ur and Nadu

Chola Copper Plate Evidence: Refers to Nattar, Brahmadeyakkilavar (Devadana, Palliccanda, Kanimurruttu, Vettapperu-Urkalilar), and Nagarattar for land grants.
Nattars: Representatives of nadu (locality), analogous to vellanvagai urars (peasant villages). Important landholders of nadu. Few inscriptions on vellanvagai villages, suggesting ur (common populace) was non-literate, but temple inscriptions on urs attributed to literate groups.
Ur (Village): Small component of nadu. Functions included supervising village lands (sale, purchase, gift). Landholding was a prerequisite for membership. Members held titles like Udaiyan, Kilan (kilavan), Velan, Peraraiyan, all indicating landholding. Ur was an assembly of non-brahmana landholders. Karashima argued for common landholding, but Subbarayalu noted individual holdings.
Nadu (Locality): Comprised of many urs (vellanvagai villages). Named after a village within it. Inscriptional evidence shows main village in some nadus was brahmadeya, but not all had it. Subbarayalu noted increase in nadus from 9th century CE, initially in fertile areas, then less fertile peripheries, expanding agrarian economy. Nilakantha Shastri considered nadu as many villages, smallest administrative component. Mahalingam saw it as an administrative unit subdivided into villages. Debate on whether nadu comprised only vellanvagai or also brahmadeya, devadana. Subbarayalu: nadu and ur represented locality of vellanvagai villages, with representatives in nadu assembly.
Nadu Characteristics: Varied in size, no natural divisions, not artificially created. Incorporated into Chola state system from previous period. Valanadus (Rajaraja I) were artificially created administrative divisions. Fertile nadus were more populated.
Nattar Functions: Kiranur inscription (1310) refers to urom of villages as qualified for Nadu. Nattars were vellalas, performed nattar (nadu) functions, held title Velan. Main occupation: agriculture. Entrusted with executing royal land grants (deciding limits, superior rights). Subservient to ruler. Supervised irrigation, bestowed land on temples, stocked donations, exempted donated lands from tax (nattiraiyili) for a deposit.
Taxation: Nadu responsible for tax payments on temple lands to state, levied a cess (Nadatci, Nattu viniyogan, Nattu-vyavasthai).
Temple Lands: Sold and leased out, nattar played important role. Nadu engaged in tax collection/assessment. Royal personnel (komarravar) also collected revenue.
Royal Officials in Nadu: Mudaligal and Dandanayakam were deputed as royal officials. Landholders absorbed into state system, working for the king.
Revenue Administration: Nadu was smallest unit. Nattup-puravu, nattu-vari (land revenue), nattukkanakku (personnel for revenue administration). Ur exempted taxes reflected in nadu accounts.
Temple Fund Transfer: King's decision reflected in Variyilarkanakku (royal revenue register) and Nattuk-kanakku (nadu revenue register).
Royal Power in Nadu: Nadu-vagai-ceyvar, Nadu-kurk-ceyvar, Nadu-kankani-nayagam, Nadu-kankatci represented royal power. Nadu Kuru (Kulottunga I inscription, 1116 CE) managed new devadana. These posts were transferable, some officers managed multiple nadus, part of royal machinery.

4.4 Brahmadeya and Nagaram

Brahmadeyas: Brahmanas as landholders in agricultural tracts, endowed with tax-free land, organized into a distinct group.
Nagaram: Trading community (traders, artisans) in commercial centers due to craft production.
Chola Emergence (mid-9th century CE): Many densely populated, rich brahmadeyas existed in Kaveri region. Karantai plates of Rajendra I mention 1080 brahmanas in Tribhuvanamahadevi Caturvedimangalam.
Sabha or Mahasabha: Assembly of brahmanas in agricultural tracts, centered around temples.
Legitimization: Temples, Puranas, Itihasas, Bhakti, varnashramadharma legitimized differentiated society and monarchical polity. Kings endowed land to brahmanas, creating brahmadeyas to legitimize power.
Taniyur (Separate Village): Many Chola brahmadeyas were taniyur within a nadu, with separate administration (revenue, justice). Agricultural villages sometimes clubbed with taniyur. Some taniyurs subordinate to temples, with Mulparusai for administration.
Sabha Membership: Inscriptions detail prerequisites (age, landholding, knowledge, good behavior) for executive committee. Karantai plates don't specify formation. Origin attributed to Dharamashastric norms.
Sabha Functions: Supervised temple lands, cattle, resources. Assigned lands to tenants, levied rent. Kept revenue/expense records. Supervised temple functionaries, organized daily services. Acted as a group for organizational benefit.
Decline of Brahmadeya: Lost importance in later Chola period (post-mid-11th century CE). Fewer brahmadeya tracts, more temples built/improved. Mahasabha sometimes relied on neighboring village income due to fund shortages.
Nagaram Settlement: Traders and artisans lived here. Inscription (1036 CE, Chidambaram) distinguishes non-brahmana inhabitants: superior status (kudiga - Sankarappadiyar, Vyaparin, Vellalas, Saliyar, Pattinavar) and inferior status (kil kalanai - Taccar, Kollar, Tattar, Koliyar).
Nagarattar: Representative body of traders. Nagaram was a separate area. Committee called nagaravariyam. Held land in common (nagarakkani) through purchase, leased out land, levied taxes, rendered services. Maintained income/expenditure records. Paid royal levies (gold, paddy). Allocated taxes to local temples (Kadamai, nagaraviniyogam). Some Nagarams were independent of nadu (taniyur).

4.5 Kings, Officials and Chiefs

Chola Administration: Numerous officers. No clear evidence of a council of ministers, but Uddan-kottam may have served this purpose. Upward and downward mobility in hierarchy.
Official Categories: Conventional historiography: Perundanan (higher), Sirutaram (lower). Senapatis (commander of troops) had middle position (Sirudanattup Perundaram). Nyayattar (judges) were both categories. Recent historians question these divisions.
Payment: Officials paid by allotting land rights. Tax on land levied in cash and kind.
Titles: Officials referred to as landholders (udaiyan, kilan). Could sub-assign or sell land. Communal ownership and customary rights recognized.
Administrative Units: Village (lowest unit), nadu (combined villages), valanadu (few nadus), taniyur (separate village), mandalam (province).
Officers/Servants: Karumigal and Panimpkkal.
Brahmana Manya Sachiva: Anbil plates mention a brahmana granted land by the king.
Royal Orders: King conveyed orders orally (triuvaykkelvi), especially for temple gifts. Directive sent via letter (sri-mukham) by Anatti (executive officer). Local bodies apprised, record prepared in presence of local magnates (Nattukkon, Nadukilavan, Urudaiyan).
Land Grant Officials: Uttaramantris, Puravu-vari-tinaikkalam (land revenue department), Varipottagam (record of land rights), Vari-pottagak-kanakku (revenue register), Variyiledu. Kankanis (supervisors) were audit officers. Entry called Variyilidu. Mugavettis wrote royal letters, Pattolais were junior functionaries.
Nadu Officers: Nadu kuru (revenue assessment/settlement officer), Nadu vagai (revenue official). Mandira olai wrote Tirumugam (royal order letter). Naduvirukkai (Vijnapti/vaykkelvi or petitioner, Anatti/executive officer) linked monarch and petitioners. Oral orders written (eluttu), compared (oppu), entered (pugunda). Document called Tittu, charity deed aravolai.
Justice: Village assemblies (committees of Nyayattar). Central court Dharmasana (Dharamasana bhattas/brahmanas proficient in law). Civil/criminal offenses not separate. King decided penalty for crimes affecting him/dynasty (fines, capital punishment).
Adhikaris (King's Officers): Titles: Udaiyan, Kilan/Kilavan, Velan, Muvendavelan, Brahma, Pallavaraiyan, Vilupparaiyan. Sometimes multiple nomenclatures, or Chola ruler's name as prefix. Naduvirukkai (mostly brahmana officers with titles like Bhatta, Barhmadhirajan) linked royal authority and bureaucracy, connected to adhikaris.
Srikaryam: Personnel in charge of temples, not ritual aspects. Some Adhikaris held this office.
Senapati (Military Affairs): Titles: king's title/name, Udaiyan, Brahma, Araiyan, Kilans. Dandanayakam probably akin to Senapati, title Pallavaaraiyans.
Tiru-mandria olai nayakam: Important for land-grant documents. Titles: Muvendavelan, Brahma.
Nadu Vagai: Revenue assessment officers deputed at Nadu. Kottam-vagai in Tondaimandalam. Nadukankaninayakam controlled multiple Nadus, higher than Nadu vagai. Titles: Araiyan, Udaiyan. Muvendavelan borne by Nadu kuru (Adhikari rank).
Rajaraja I (1001 CE) Reforms: Elaborate land revenue fixation/assessment. Created Valanadus. Department: Puravuvari tinaikkalam. Personnel: Puravu vari, Vari pottagan, Mugavetti, Vari pottaga, Kanakku, Variyi/idu, Pattolai.
Rajendra II: More elaborate administrative personnel (Puravu-vari-tinaikkala-kanakkar).
Kulottunga I: Fewer officers (Puravu-vari-Srikarana, Nayagam, Mugavetti).
Variyilar: General term for revenue department personnel. Epithets: Udaiyan, Muvendavelan.
Titles and State System: Udaiyan, Kilan, Kilavan, Velan, Muvendavelan (typical Chola title from Parantaka) suggest landholding. Muvendavelan bestowed by Chola King, indicating Vellal landed magnates enlisted in state service. Araiyan (chiefs' title) became more prestigious than Muvendavelan, rising in number under Rajaraja I. Chiefs subdued to landed magnates/cultivators.
Cattle Herders (manradi): Supervised lamp grants in temples.
Merchants: Titles: Cetti, Mayilatti, Palan. Held important offices (Senapati, accountant).
Artisans: Titles: Peruntaccan, Perunkollan. Positions confined to royal palace/temple.
Council of Ministers: No clear evidence, but officers like Purohita, Rajagurus, Tirumandira olai, Adhikari, Vayilketpar existed.
King's Court: Comprised brahmana advisors, priests, Rajaguru, Adhikaris, Tirumandira olai nayagams, Vayilketpar, head of bodyguards, Samantas.
Levies: Antarayam, Eccoru, Kadamai (produce-rent), Kudimai, Muttaiy-al, Vetti (labour-rent), Tattar-pattan (cash payment). Mostly exacted in kind (paddy).
Military Strength: Expeditions to Sri Lanka (Rajaraja I) and SriVijaya (Rajendra I). Cavalry (kudiraiccevagar), elephants (Anaiyatkal), archers (villigal, anukkar). Valangai (right hand) Velaikkarar (peasants). Soldiers recruited from artisan groups (idangai - left hand), mercenary soldiers.
Kantalur Salai: Chola Meykkirttis mention this educational institution in Chera kingdom for military training of brahmanas. Chola king destroyed Chera fleet there, proving military prowess.
Chiefs' Position: Important in state system. Pandyan kingdom: Ays. Sangam literature: Ays, Vels, Muvas, Kodumbalurs, Adigamans. Pallavas: Gangas, Adigamans, Banas, Vettuva-adiaraiyan, Muttaraiyar. Chola period: Paluvettaraiyar, Vels, Malavas, Gangas, Banas.
Chiefs' Functions: Assigned land, collected dues for padi kaval (territory protection). Post-Kulottunga period: Nilamaittittu (diplomatic agreement between chiefs). Chiefs had soldiers/retainers, utilized by Chola kings.

4.6 Chalukyas of Kalyana

Nomenclature: Also known as Later Chalukyas (succeeding Badami Chalukyas) or Kalyani Chalukyas (Kalyan became capital mid-11th century).
Descent: Traced from Badami Chalukyas, though evidence is tenuous.
Founder: Taila II, initially a subordinate of Rashtrakutas. Governed Melpati in 957 CE. Krishna III (Rashtrakuta monarch) conferred Tardavadi 1000 on Tailaparasa (Taila II) in 965 CE. Inscription from Muttagi (Bijapur) describes him as Samadhigata-Panchamahashabda, Mahasamantadhipati, Ahvamalla Satyasraya Kulatikala, indicating high status. Tardavadi identified as modern Tardevadi.
Genealogy: Inscriptions and Kannada work Gadayuddha (poet Ranna) trace Taila II's descent from Bhima I (brother of Keertivarma II, last Badami Chalukya ruler). Taila II was 8th in line from Bhima I. His father Vikramaditya married Kalachuri princess Bontadevi.
Military Campaigns:
- Gangas: Hostile due to matrimonial alliances with Rashtrakutas. Chalukyas routed them in 975 CE, Gangas acknowledged Chalukya suzerainty.
- Cholas: Rajaraja Chola intervened in Nolambavadi and Vengi Chalukya succession struggle, defeated by Taila II in 992 CE.
- Other Victories: Taila II continued campaigns, won over Latas (southern Gujarat), Gurjaras (northern Gujarat), Chedis, Paramaras of Malwa. Sevunas (Yadavas) chief Billama became feudatory, assisted against Paramaras.
- Titles: Taila II assumed Ranaranga-Bheema, Nija-bhuja-chakravarti (emperor by own arms), Ratta-gharatta (grindmill to Rattas). Reign marked by ceaseless warfare for consolidation.
Successors:
- Irivabedanga Satyashraya (997 CE): Son of Taila II. Succeeded in 997 CE. Cholas invaded Gangavadi (1004 CE), captured Talakad, subjugated Gangas, marched into Chalukyan territory (Donur, Bijapur). Irivabedanga sent expeditions against Vengi Chalukyas, Silharas of Konkan, Paramaras of Malwa to secure Chalukyan position.
- Vikramaditya V (1008-1014 CE): Next monarch. Younger brother Ayyana ascended briefly.
- Jadadekamalla Jayasimha II (1015-1044 CE): Younger brother of Vikramaditya V. Sources indicate understanding among Paramaras, Kalachuris, Vengi Chalukyas, Cholas to encircle Chalukyan kingdom. Paramara king made inroads into northern/western Chalukyan regions, fought battle on Godavari (Jayasimha victory). Paramara chief occupied parts of Konkan, dislodged after fighting. Cholas advanced through Banavasi/Raichur doab to Kollipake (subsidiary capital). Chola forces driven back. Jayasimha assumed title cholagra-kalanala. Kalyana gained prominence during his reign.
- Someshvara I (1044-1068 CE): Eldest son of Jayasimha II. Crowned 1044 CE. Kalyana became metropolis in 1048 CE. Vengi was bone of contention with Cholas. Someshvara I campaigned against Vengi, but Cholas hampered his march. Inconclusive battle. Cholas pillaged Kollipake (1045 CE). Someshvara I reasserted suzerainty over Vengi. Inscription (1047 CE) claims he subdued Vengi and Kalinga. Son Bhuvanaikamalla Someshvara II styled Vengipuravareshvara (1049-1054 CE). Vengi ruler remained vassal. Narayana Bhatta (scholar) represented Someshvara I at Vengi, helped court poet compose Telugu Mahabharata. Successful campaigns in north/west against Paramaras, Chedis, Sihararas, Yadavas.
- Bhuvanaikamalla Someshvara II (1068 CE): Eldest son of Someshvara I. Constantly struggled against Vengi Chalukyas and Cholas.
- Vikramaditya VI (1077 CE): Inaugurated Chalukya Vikrama-Varsha era. Led military expeditions to Lata/Malwa thrice for northern frontiers. Sent embassy to Vijayabahu (Sri Lanka ruler, Koluttunga I adversary). Extended sway in Vengi, defeated Kulottunga I at Kanchi, restored suzerainty. Inscriptions found in Vengidesha. Patron of learning/arts. Bilhana (Kashmir scholar) wrote Vikramankadevacharita. Vijnaneshvara wrote Mitakshara (Hindu law). Both glorified Vikramaditya VI and Kalyana.
- Someshvara III (1127 CE): Son of Vikramaditya VI. Epithets: Sarvajna-Bhupa, Bhulokamalla (deep learning). Attributed authorship of encyclopedic work Manosollasa (Abhilashitarthacintamani). Peace-loving ruler.
- Jagadekamalla II (c. 1139 CE): Son of Someshvara III. Known as Perma, Tribhuvanamalla Permadideva. Assisted by Hoysalas in northern expeditions. Contended with Hoysalas (south), Kakatiyas (east), Sevunas (north). Kadambas of Goa independent. Chalukya generals subdued subordinates, restored prestige.
- Trailokvamalla Taila III: Younger brother of Jagadekamalla II. Chalukya power waned. Feudatories grew powerful. Kalachuri Bijjala II (nephew of Someshvara III, cousin of Jagadekamalla II) became powerful mahamandaleshvara. Won over feudatories, established hold on Chalukyan capital. Epigraph (1157 CE, Chikkalige) doesn't mention Taila III's reign. Another inscription (Haveri) describes Bijjala as Maharajadhiraja Bhujabala Chakravarti Kalachurya Bijjaladeva.
- End of Chalukya Power: Bijjala II declared himself monarch of Chalukyan kingdom in 1162 CE. Kalachuri interregnum lasted 22 years (1162-1184 CE). Someshvara IV (declared king by Taila III) resumed power after fleeing, but only controlled parts of Varada (1183-84). By 1200 CE, Chalukyan power faded, Karnataka became arena of struggle between Sevunas of Devagiri and Hoysalas of Dorasamudra.

4.7 Culture under the Chalukyas of Kalyana

Trading Activities: Flourished under Chalukya empire.
Merchant Guilds:
- Ayyavole 500: Most noteworthy. Originated at Aihole (Badami Chalukya capital), spread across south India. Participated in land grants, sometimes as royal donors. Close association with ruling kings, helped construct temples.
- Other Guilds: Nanadesi, Veera Bananju.
Building Activity: Developed from Badami Chalukyas. Notable temples at Itgi, Kuravatti, Lakumdi, Balligave, Gadag, Dambal, Begali, Chandanapur (Bijapur).
Decorative Elements: Temples adorned with madanike (bracket figures), scenes from Epics and Panchatrantra. Images of Siva, Virbhadra, Bhairava, Durga, Kali. Impressive Siva images in dhyanamudra and cosmic dance (Nataraja).
Learning Centers: Many agraharas, brahmapuris, ghatika-sthanas, and monasteries emerged in Kalyana, Bhallunke (Bhalki), Gorta. Patronized by kings, noblemen, traders, merchant-guilds. Imparted education in various branches, equipped with libraries, feeding houses, residential facilities.
Literature: Sanskrit and Kannada literature flourished.
- Kannada Luminaries: Pampa, Ranna, DUrgasimha, Nagavarma.
- Machiraja (Jayasimha II mandalika) patronized brahmana poet Chanraraja, who composed Madanatilaka.
- Kannada script refined to elegant round shape.
- Vachana Literature: Large body of prose literature (vachana-shastra) emerged, written by non-professional writers from all walks of life to reconstruct society.
Shaivism: Various sects (Pashupata, Lakulisa, Kalamukha) joined Virashaivism.
Virashaivism:
- Nature: Socio-religious movement, revolutionary, seeking radical changes and new human values. Led by Basavanna (Basava, Basaveshvara, Basavaraja, Basavadeva) and others (saint Allama Prabhu, Siddharama, Madivala Machayya).
- Philosophy: Denounced caste/sub-caste compartmentalization and untouchability. Opened wisdom to all. Used "Siva" for absolute Supreme Being, not Trimurtis/Gods. Distinguished "bhavis" (worldly) from "bhaktas" (spiritual minded). Opposed priest craft, hypocrisy, exploitation, inequalities. Preached egalitarian values.
- Development: Protestant movement within Sanatana Dharma. Virashaiva monasteries promoted education among weaker sections, social/religious reforms.
- Historical Significance: Forerunner of reformist movements (Mahanubhavis of Maharashtra, Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Nanak). Prepared way for Vijayanagara empire.

Unit 5: Art and Architecture: North India and South India

This unit explores the regionalization of Indian cultural traditions, particularly in art and architecture, between the 8th and 13th centuries. It details the emergence of distinct architectural styles, sculptural schools, and the influence of the "medieval factor" in artistic manifestations.

5.1 Introduction to Art and Architecture

Regionalism as Hallmark: The period (8th-13th centuries) is marked by regionalism in political power, arts, languages, literature, and religious manifestations.
Material Changes: Agrarian changes and non-agrarian developments shaped feudal socio-economic formation, impacting political structure and cultural ethos.
Literary Evidence of Regionalism:
- Mudrakshasa (Sanskrit play, 5th century, Vishakhadatta): Mentions different customs, clothing, language in various regions.
- Huien-Tsang (Chinese pilgrim, 7th century): Noted several nationalities in India.
- Kuvalayamala (Jain text, 8th century, western India): Describes 18 major nationalities, 16 peoples' anthropological character, psychological features, languages.
- Brahmavaivarta Purana (13th century, Bengal): Explicates deshabheda (differences based on regions/territories).
Architectural Languages: Emergence of Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara styles.

5.2 Temple Architecture

Symbolism: Indian temples symbolize the ethos of people's lifestyles and served as centers for community activities.
Chronological and Geographical Span: From simple beginnings at Sanchi (5th century CE) to grand edifices at Kanchi, Thanjavur, and Madurai (over a millennium).
Shilpasastras (Treatises): Prominent texts include Mayamata, Manasara, Shilparatna, Kamikagama, Kashyapasilpa, and Ishanagurudevapaddhati.
Classification Bases: Majority of works classify temples by:
- Geographical distribution.
- Shapes.
- Presiding deities and castes.
Later texts (Kamikagama, Kashyapasilpa) also include ornamentation, number of storeys, and size of prasadas.

5.2.1 Major Styles

Three Orders: Ancient texts classify Indian temple architecture into Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara, highlighting typological features and geographical distribution.
Ground Plans: Regulate vertical profile.
- Nagara: Primarily square.
- Dravida: Primarily octagonal.
- Vesara: Primarily apsidal.
Nagara Style: Generally identified with northern temple styles. Found across northern India, from Himalayas to central Deccan plateau. Exhibits regional variations.
- Aparajitapriccha: Confines Nagari (Nagara) to Madhyadesha (Ganga-Yamuna plains), mentions Lati and Vairati as separate styles in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
- Odisha manuscripts: Recognize four types: Rehka, Bhadra, Khakhara, Gaudiya.
Dravida Style: More consistent development, confined to southernmost subcontinent (Krishna river to Kanyakumari).
Vesara Style: Vague definition. Some texts place it between Vindhyas and Krishna river, others between Vindhyas and Agastya. Prototypes are Buddhist chaitya halls in Western Ghats (Maharashtra), characterized by apsidal ground plan.
Overlapping Styles: Geographical classification is misleading due to influences from different regions.
- Early Chalukya temples (7th-8th centuries): Strategically positioned in central peninsula, showing mixed influences.
- Kandariya Mahadeva temple (Khajuraho): Combines various architectural elements.
- Kerala temples: Display variety in plan types (square, circular, apsidal-ended), earliest examples from 12th century.

5.2.2 Presiding Deities

Dedication: Temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and the Mother Goddess.
Divinities: Consecration and depiction of numerous divinities (big/small, benevolent/malevolent, celestial/terrestrial, atmospheric/heavenly, devas, asuras, folk deities like yakshas, vakshis, apsaras, kinnaris).
Symbolism of Vahanas (Vehicles): Animals/birds shed muteness, becoming eloquent symbols.
- Nandi (bull): Expresses Shiva's sexuality, agricultural significance.
- Tiger: Embodies Durga's fierce strength/aggressiveness.
- Crocodile (Ganga) and Tortoise (Yamuna): Identify river goddesses.
- Elephants, lotus, water (Lakshmi): Symbolize fortune, magical power of agricultural fertility (Rigveda connection).
- Swan (Saraswati): Typifies grace, elegance, and Kshira-nira viveka (intellectual discerning capacity).
Kashyapashilpa: Chapter on deities for principal styles.
- Nagara: Shantamurtis (peaceful, calm, serene deities).
- Vesara: Couples or moving deities.
- Dravida: Heroic, dancing, or enjoying deities.
These injunctions, like basic styles, should not be taken as compartmentalized. Textual prescriptions linking styles to brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya varnas are not to be taken literally.

5.2.3 Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples

Technical Language: Each style has distinctive technical language, though some terms are common but applied differently.
Main Parts:
- Vimana: Sanctuary, main part, housing the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) with the presiding deity.
- Shikhara: Part surmounting the vimana (spire/tower).
- Mandapa: Pavilion for devotees' assembly.
- Antarala: Vestibule connecting vimana and mandapa.
- Pradakshinapatha: Circumambulatory passage.
Later Additions (Odishan temples): Natmandir (dance hall) and bhogamandapa (refectory hall) evolved to enhance dignity.
Nagara Type Exterior: Horizontal tiers (e.g., jagamohan/porch of Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneswar). Vimana usually circular in plan. No structural similarity between Brahmanical and Jain temples except for housing Tirthankaras.
Dravida Style: Polygonal, often octagonal shikhara. Pyramidal vimana, rectangular in plan. Notable for towering gopurams (gate towers) of additional mandapas.
Evolution: From Ganesh ratha (Pallava, 7th century, Mahabalipuram) to Brihadishvara temple (c. 985-1012 CE, Cholas, Thanjavur), Dravida style made significant strides.

5.2.4 Ecological Setting, Raw Materials and Regionalisation

Stylistic Evolution: Rooted in ecological settings, giving regional identity.
Regional Adaptations:
- Heavy Rainfall Areas (western coast, Bengal): Sloping tiled roofs, timber gables.
- Himalayan Belt: Wooden sloped roofs to counter snow/hail. Kashmir temples (Pandrethan, Sun temple at Martand) copied wooden roofs in stone.
- Hotter/Drier Climates: Flatter roofs, open porches for shade, pierced stone screens for light. Ladkhan temple (Chalukyas, Aihole, north Karnataka) adapted thatch/timber village hall features.
- Jain Shrines: On high hills (Shatrunjaya, Palitana, Dilwara temples at Mt. Abu), characterized by seclusion.
Raw Materials: Influenced craftsmanship. Transition from wood to stone (Mauryas, 3rd century BCE) was a major step.
- Hard/Crystalline Rocks (granite, e.g., Pallava King Mahendravarman's cave temples at Mahabalipuram): Prevented detailed carving. Mahendravarman called vichitra-chitta (curious minded) for using granite.
- Soft/Sedimentary Stone: Permitted great precision.
- Friable/Schist-like Stones (Hoysala architects at Belur, Halebid, Karnataka, 12th-13th centuries): Promoted carving of mouldings with sharp/angled incisions.
- Brick Building Traditions: Continued where stone was absent (e.g., Bishnupur, Bengal). Influenced temple styles.
- Timber/Bamboo Techniques: Unique architectural development in north-eastern Assam.
- Kashmir: Timber/brick traditions dominate temple forms. Sloping/gabled roofs preserved in stone.

5.2.5 Role of Decorative Elements

Natural Evolution: Styles evolved with decorations, ornamentations, embellishments, but these did not alter basic temple structure.
Conspicuous Elements:
- Pillars: From simple oblong shafts (early Pallava) to finely chiseled (lathe work) columns (Hoysala temples).
- Corridors: Long corridors with animal-based caryatids (Madurai, Rameshvaram temples).
- Motifs: Niches, pavilions, horse-shoe shaped windows (kudu) delineate evolution stages.
- Ornamentation: General tendency for constant increase. Kudu (Mahabalipuram) with plain shovel-headed finial evolved into lion head (Chola monuments).
- North India: Excessive ornamentation on shikharas, ceilings, walls. Exquisite marble carvings in Dilwara Jain temples (Mt. Abu) are purely decorative, serving no structural purpose.
- Roof Multiplication: Distinctive feature in Malabar, Bengal, eastern/western Himalayas. West coast/Malabar temples: walls resemble wooden railing, simple/series of pitched roofs (Vadakkunath temple, Trichur, 15th-16th century) resembling Chinese/Nepalese temples. Kashmir valley: two/three roofs (Shiva temple at Pandrethan, Sun temple at Martand), intervals open for light/air in wooden examples, closed with ornaments in stone. Bengal temples borrowed from leaf-huts (Bishnupur, Keshta Raya, 17th century) with multiple roof forms. Mughal architecture used "Bengal roof."

5.3 Organization of Building Programme

Organized Process: Structural temple erection followed an organized building program.
Materials: Bricks baked on/near site. Stone quarried locally.
Transport: Stone transported on wooden rollers (elephants) or floated on barges (rivers/canals), as seen in reliefs and a palm-leaf manuscript for Konarka Sun temple (13th century).
Construction Techniques: Masons roughly shaped stone blocks, hoisted by rope pulleys on scaffolding. Ramps of timber/sand facilitated placing heavy stones (e.g., 80-tonne shikhara of Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, dragged 7km from Sarapallan). Iron beams used in sanctuary/hall (Konark).
Labor Organization: Architects, artisans, workmen organized into guilds. Konark temple manuscript lists workmen, salaries, rules of conduct, and building operations over years. 11th-century Khajuraho panel shows stone cutting, chiseling, transport.

5.4 Chronological and Geographical Spread of Indian Temples

5.4.1 The Northern Style

Northern, Central, Western India (5th-7th centuries): Parvati temple (Nachna), Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), brick temple (Bhitaragon), Vishnu temple (Gop), Mundeshwari temple (octagonal plan, Ramgarh), temples at Sanchi and Jigawa.
Deccan and Central India (6th-8th centuries): Cave temples at Ellora, Elephanta, Badami. Early-Chalukyan temples at Badami, Aihole (Ladkhan), Pattadakal (Papanatha, Galganatha), Kailash temple at Ellora (Rashtrakuta patronage).
Western and Central India (8th-13th centuries): Harihara and other temples at Osian, Jelika Mandir (Gwalior), Candella temples at Khajuraho (Lakshman, Kandariya Mahadev, Vishvanatha), temples at Roda, Sun temple at Modhera, Marble Jain temples at Mt. Abu.
Eastern India (8th-13th centuries): Parashurameshvar Vaital Deul, Mukteshvar, Lingaraj, Rajarani temples (Bhubaneshwar), Sun temple at Konarka, Jagannatha temple (Puri).
Himalayan Belt (8th century onwards): Sun temple at Martand, Shiva temple at Pandrethan, Vishnu temple at Aventesvamin (Kashmir), temple at Masrur (Kangara), Brahmanical temples in Nepal (Kathmandu, Patan, Bhadgaon).

5.4.2 The Southern Style

Deccan and Tamil Nadu (6th-10th centuries): Cave temples, Rathas, 'Shore' temple (Pallavas, Mahabalipuram), Vaikunthaperumal, Kailasanatha temples (Kanchipuram). Chalukyan structures at Aihole (Meguti), Badami (Malegitti Shiva), Pattadakal (Virupaksha).
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala (10th-17th centuries): Brihadishvara temples (Cholas, Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram), Hoysala temples (Belur, Halebid, Somnathpur), Later-Chalukya temples (Lakkundi, Gadag), Pampati temple (Pandyas, Vijaynagar), Shrirangam, Minakshi temples (Madurai), Kattilmadam, Parashuram temple (Tiruvallam).

5.4.3 The Vesara Style

Prototypes: Buddhist chaitya halls in Western Ghats (Maharashtra) with apsidal ground plan.
Early Examples (7th-10th centuries): Structures at Chezarla (Andhra Pradesh), Aihole (Durga temple), Mahabalipuram (Sahdeva, Draupadi rathas), Kerala (Shiva temples at Trikkandiyur, Tiruvannur).
Classic Post-10th Century Examples: Nataraja shrine (Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu), Vamana temple (Kizhavellur, Kerala).

5.5 Temples and Indian Cultural Ethos

Multifunctional Role: Temples symbolized human urges and served diverse community activities.
Education: Endowments supported colleges within temple complexes, teaching grammar, astrology, Vedas, Epics, Puranas.
Performing Arts: Music and dance were integral to daily rituals and festivals. Large temples maintained musicians, dancers, actors, teachers. Life-size depictions in Khajuraho (10th century), Sun temple at Konark, nata mandir (Odishan temples). Cosmic dance of Mahadeva Shiva at Chidambaram.
Devadasi Institution: Temple maidens played significant role in dancing and singing devotional hymns. Chola emperor Rajaraja I (984-1012) built two streets for 400 dancing women at Brihadishvara temple, indicating lavish endowment.
Festivals and Pilgrimage: Regular festivals (e.g., Jagannatha temple's annual rathayatra) fostered community participation. Pilgrimage (tirthayatra) facilitated community involvement.
Economic Influence: Temples provided work and livelihood for many (priests, garland-makers, suppliers of clarified butter, milk, oil). Thanjavur temple inscription (1011 CE) details over 600 supported persons (cooks, gardeners, dance-masters, musicians, wood-carvers, painters, choir-groups, accountants, watchmen, officials, servants).
Social Ranking: Increasing participation in rituals made temples effective sites for social ranking. Temple honors distributed by rank, worshippers positioned by proximity to deity. Rulers came first, then rich donors, then lower castes (prohibited from entering). Bhakti movements highlighted low-caste saints whose devotion made gods return their love.

5.6 Sculptures: Stone and Metal Images

Regional Spirit: Reflected in sculptural arts. Stylistic schools developed in eastern, western, central, northern India, Himalayan regions, Deccan, and far south.
"Medieval Factor" (Niharranjan Rai): Characterized by slenderness, sharp angles/lines, flatness of bodily form, concave curves. Evident in Western/Central Indian sculptures, Himalayan metal images, Gujarati/Rajasthani book/textile illustrations, Bengal terracottas/wood carvings, Deccan/Odisha miniatures (post-10th centuries).
Focus: Human figure (male/female gods, goddesses, attendants) as pivot of early medieval sculpture. Cult images maintained uniform quality due to regulated form.
Creative Climax: Not simultaneous across India. Bihar/Bengal (9th-10th centuries), Odisha (12th-13th), Central India (10th-11th), Rajasthan (10th), Gujarat (11th), far south (10th-11th). Deccan saw increasing torpor after 8th century.
Non-Iconic Figures: Conformed to standardized types, rarely revealing artist's personal attitude. Multitude of figures: narrative reliefs, historical/semi-historical scenes, music/dance scenes, mithuna couples, warriors, animals, shalabhanjikas (women and tree).
Metal Images: Profusion of brass and octa-alloy (ashta-dhatu), copper, bronze in eastern India (Bihar, Bengal, Assam), Himalayan kingdoms (Nepal, Kashmir), and especially south India.
- North Indian: Brahmanic and Buddhist deities with tantric influences.
- South Indian: Shiva forms (Nataraja), Parvati, Shaiva saints (Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar), Vaishnav saints (Alvars), royal donors.
Iconography and Feudal Society: Post-Gupta iconography displayed divine hierarchy, reflecting pyramidal ranks in feudal society. Vishnu, Shiva, Durga as supreme deities, others as retainers/attendants. Mother Goddess established as independent divinity, dominating minor deities. Jainism incorporated Mother Goddess (Dilwara temples, Mt. Abu). Pantheons reflect syncretism. Ellora rock-cut sculptures show divinities in violent struggles. Unequal ranks in Shaivite, Jain, Buddhist monastic organizations. Acharya consecration ceremonies similar to prince coronations.

5.7 Paintings, Terra-cottas and the “Medieval Factor”

Medieval Painting Traits: Sharp, jerky, pointed angles (elbow, shoulders), sensuous facial features (sharp/peaked nose, long/wide/swollen eyes, crescent lips), rich variegated patterns, geometric/abstract decoration.
Examples: Kailasha temple walls (Ellora, 8th century), Jaina shrine (Sittanavasal, 9th century), Brihadishvara temple (Thanjavur, 11th century). More pronounced in manuscript illustrations from Bihar, Bengal, Nepal, Tibet (post-10th centuries). Also on textile surfaces (West Indian, Deccan, south, Odisha, Bengal, post-13th centuries).
Terracotta Art and Feudal Ethos: Feudal ethos of post-Gupta economy, society, polity visible. Changes in patrons and content.
Patronage Shift: Pre-Gupta art (Bharhut, Sanchi, Karle, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda) patronized by mercantile/commercial class, artisans, craft-guilds, royal families. Gupta period (4th-6th centuries) saw Brahmanical temples in stone, reflecting renewed Brahmanism.
Post-Gupta Patronage (650-1300 CE): Supported mainly by kings, principalities, feudatories, military chiefs. Terracotta, once common man's art, became elite art for resourceful patrons (big landlords, Brahmanical temples, non-Brahmanical monasteries). Output of miniature portable terracottas for urban market dwindled.
Terracotta Sites: Few urban centers yielded terracottas (Varanasi, Ahichchhatra, Kannauj, Tattanandapur). Preserved in feudal headquarters/religious centers: Paharpur, Rajbadidanga (Bengal), Vikramashila (Bihar), Akhnur, Ushkar (Kashmir). Used by landed aristocrats and kings to decorate religious buildings and for auspicious occasions (marriages), as recorded by Bana in Harshacarita.

Unit 6: Arab Conquest of Sindh, Turkish Invasions, Mahmud Ghazni and Mohd. Ghouri

This unit covers the Arab conquest of Sindh and subsequent Turkish invasions by Mahmud Ghazni and Muhammad Ghouri, analyzing their historical context, motivations, military strategies, and socio-cultural impacts on the Indian subcontinent.

6.1 Introduction to Early Medieval Indian History

Periodization: c. 700-1200 CE is termed "early medieval" or "post-Gupta." It has distinct characteristics not found in earlier or later phases.
Niharranjan Ray's Characterization: Envisaged three sub-periods within medievalism: 7th-12th century, 12th-early 16th century, early 16th-late 18th century.
Cultural Diversity: B.D. Chattopadhyaya argues that time-spans are culturally diverse, requiring further sub-division. For example, 7th-10th and 10th-12th centuries differ due to events like the Arab conquest of Sindh (8th century) and Turkish invasions (10th-12th centuries).
Unit Focus: Background of Arab/Turkish invasions, sources, reasons for Sindh's capture, phases of conquest, reasons for Rajput defeat/Turkish victory, differences between Ghaznavids and Ghurids, social, cultural, and technological impacts.

6.2 The Rise and Spread of Islam in 7th-8th Centuries

Founding of Islam: Prophet Muhammad (7th century, Arabian merchant from Mecca) unified warring Bedouin tribes with monotheistic teachings. This greatly influenced future Muslim states' political and economic policies.
Rapid Expansion: After Prophet Muhammad's death, Muslim polity expanded under Rashudin and Umayyad Caliphates, stretching from Central Asia across Middle East, North Africa to the Atlantic (13 million sq km empire).
Reasons for Expansion: Political formation of a state in Arabian Peninsula, religious unity, and mobilization.
Governing Class: Gradual end of wars led to a new, heterogeneous governing class of administrators and traders.
Sindh Conquest: An extension of Muslim world's endeavor.

6.3 The Chachnama

Source Importance: Despite scarcity of Arab sources (brief mentions in Futuh al Buldan by Al-Baladhuri, Al-Madaini), Chachnama (Persian text by Ali Kufi, 1226 CE) is a reliable historical work, claiming to be a translation of a lost 8th-century Arabic account. It provides detailed information on the Arab invasion of Sindh.
Content: Details Sindh's history from 680-718 CE. "Chachnama" means "story of Chach," the Hindu brahmana ruler of Sindh. Written in Uchch (political capital, ~70 km north of Karachi).
Scholarly Re-evaluation: Previously seen only as a conquest narrative. Scholars like Yohanan Friedmann and Manan Ahmed Asif argue it's a repository of diverse information beyond Islam's advent, containing data on Sindh's government and politics.

6.3.1 The Narrative of Chachnama

Friedmann's Division:
1. Praise of Prophet Muhammad, Arab warriors, and Arab manuscript on Muhammad Bin Qasim's exploits.
2. Arab invasion of Sindh.
Chach's Rule: Details King Chach bin Silaij's rise from chief minister to king with queen's help. Established a successful state by capturing forts, signing agreements, winning over Buddhist and Hindu subjects. His offensive, defensive, and tolerant policies sustained his rule.
Succession and Conflict: Chach's success undone by war of succession between sons Dahar and Daharsia. Dahar supported Arab rebels, pirates, warlords against Iraq, leading to Arab ire.
Ahmed Asif's Division:
1. Legitimacy for king, good counsel of advisor, justly governed polity.
2. History from Caliphs to Walid, Muslim campaigns in Sindh/Hind under Caliph Umar (c. 634-644 CE). Details governors (Makran, Zabulistan, Qandahar), rebellious Muslim groups, and Muhammad Bin Qasim's expedition (711 CE) to fight them. Qasim attacked Debal, Nerun, defeated Raja Dahar on Indus, occupied Aror, Brahmanabad, Multan.
3. Qasim's downfall: Killed on Caliph's orders after being accused of sexual violence by Dahar's daughters.
4. Themes of good governance, advisory, political theory, military campaigns of Chach and Qasim. Speeches on policy/taxation, private conversations, prophecies, dreams.

6.4 The Conquest of Sindh

Location: Sindh, south-eastern zone of present-day Pakistan, western coast of Indian subcontinent.
Historical Context: Hotbed of trade/commerce since ancient times. Arab merchants had active trade relations with India and Southeast Asia via sea routes (Siraf, Hormuz to Indus mouth, Spara, Cambay, Calicut, Malabar Coast). Brought back Indian wealth (gold, diamond, idols).
Motivations: Aspiration for Indian riches, proselytizing zeal to spread Islam.
Early Incursions: Arab penetration in coastal Sindh began 636 CE (Caliph Umar). Pillaging expeditions (e.g., Thane, 637 CE) were raids, not conquests.
Systematic Conquest: Happened in 712 CE under Umayyad Caliph al-Walid, incorporating Sindh into Muslim empire.
Immediate Cause: Sindhi pirates plundered Arab ships carrying gifts from Ceylon's king to Caliph of Baghdad and al-Hajjaj (governor of Iraq). Raja Dahar refused restitution, claiming inability to control pirates, accused of protecting them. Hajjaj obtained Caliph Walid's permission to attack.
Military Expeditions: Three expeditions. Muhammad Bin Qasim defeated Dahar in the third expedition at Debal, killing him.
Territorial Gains: Captured Nirun, Rewar, Brahmanabad, Alor, Multan. Sindh conquered in 712 CE.

6.4.1 Muhammad bin Qasim: the Conqueror and his Expeditions

Young General: 17-year-old Umayyad general, nephew of Hajjaj. Appointed head of Makran frontier district.
Expedition Preparation: Carefully planned from Shiraz. Force included 6,000 men of Syria's gund and other contingents.
Sindh's Political Landscape: Indus basin ruled by King Dahar (8th century), son of Chach. Chach's vast empire (Makran, Kashmir) reduced to a small state under Dahar (lower Indus region: Brahmanabad, Aror, Debal) after Arab invasion.
Campaign Route: Qasim reached Indus delta, besieged Debal (great city, Dahar's lieutenant) by land, received war materials by sea. Proceeded to Nirun (near Hyderabad, Pakistan), which surrendered peacefully. Captured Sadusan, Sawandri, Basmad. Crossed Indus to tackle Dahar, defeated and killed him. Captured Brahmanabad (capital) and Alor. Moved north to conquer Multan (Hajjaj's final goal).
Policy of Tolerance: Conquest did not lead to mass conversion. Debal and Multan saw massacres, but Alor, Nirun, Surast, Sawandri saw negotiations and settlements. Qasim practiced tolerance, allowing religious freedom to Brahmanic and Buddhist populations. Preserved privileges of priests, reappointed Brahmanabad brahmins to former positions (made hereditary), called them "good and faithful people." Common people free to worship, paid same taxes as under Dahar.
Treatment of Jats: Continued low status, forced to wear coarse clothing, move barefoot, fined for fine clothes, not allowed to ride horses (without saddle/reins), infamous for highway robbery.
Hajjaj's Instructions: Qasim's policy of flexibility and tolerance was under Hajjaj's instructions, who believed in religious freedom. This policy was characteristic of early Islam.

6.5 Arab Administration

Pattern: Arab form of administration, similar to other conquered regions, liberal compared to later systems (Islamic law less strict).
Leniency and Flexibility: Local practices unhindered. Caliph Umar disallowed Arabs from interfering with local administration or acquiring landed property.
Local Chiefs: Chief military general became governor, but civil administration remained with local (mostly non-Muslim) chiefs.
"Brahmanabad Settlement": Qasim's arrangement after Dahar's defeat. Hindus treated as "people of the book" or zimmis (protected ones). Paid taxes to Caliph, received protection, religious freedom, property rights.
Origin of Policy: Result of Brahmanabad people's plea to Qasim to repair temple and practice religion, forwarded to Hajjaj, then Caliph. Hajjaj and Qasim diligently carried out tolerance.

6.6 Arab Conquest of Sindh: A Triumph without Results?

"Triumph without Results" View: Scholars like Stanley Lane Poole, Elphinstone argued it had no major impact on Indian history, confined to Sindh, no political/military effect on rest of India, unlike Turks who established Delhi Sultanate.
Critique of Viewpoint: Other scholars refute this, arguing definite political influences on both sides.
- Qasim's Administration: Able administrator and warrior. Maintained law and order, good administration. Arrangements with non-Muslims formed basis for later Muslim policy. Socio-cultural/religious freedom under Hajjaj's guidance.
- Caste System: Remained intact, no forceful conversions.
- Internal Weaknesses: Arab invasion exposed fissures in Indian social/political systems, used by later invaders. Brahmanas of Brahmanabad termed "faithful people" to secure support.
- Cultural Intermingling: Mutual growth in literature, medicine, mathematics, astronomy.
  - Mathematics/Astronomy: Earliest Indo-Arab contact 771 CE. Hindu astronomer/mathematician brought Brahma Siddhanta (Brahmagupta) to Baghdad, translated into Arabic as Sind Hind, influencing Arab astronomy. Indian culture's key contribution: Arabic numerals.
  - Medicine: Arabs gave great attention to Indian medicine. At least 15 Sanskrit works (Charaka, Sushruta) translated. Indian doctors (e.g., Manka) gained prestige in Baghdad.
  - Other Fields: Astrology, palmistry, statecraft, art of war, logic, ethics, magic. Panchatantra translated as Kalila and Dimna. Indian games (chausar, chess) transmitted.
  - Music: Indian music influenced Arabic music. Arab author Jahiz praised Indian music. Technical terms borrowed. Indian music incorporated Perso-Arab airs (Yeman, Hijj).
- Sufism: Sindh contributed to Sufism's popularization. Early Sufi Bayazid of Bistam had a Sindhi spiritual teacher.
- Urban Culture: Arab settlers' urban ethos boosted urban culture in Sindh/Multan. Egalitarian Islam attracted low castes.
- Limited Rural Influence: Islam confined to urban areas initially. Muslim missionaries entered in 10th century, partial conversion. Converts ruled region until Ghaznavid annexation (1025 CE).
- Post-Qasim Sindh/Multan: Arab travelers (Masudi, Ibn Haukul) confirm Arab colonies. Non-Muslims (zimmis) in good terms. Cow slaughter banned (to preserve cattle wealth, respect Hindu sentiments). Hindu king commissioned Quran translation (886 CE).
- Arab Adaptations: Adopted local practices more than Ghaznavids/Turks. Mansura ruler maintained war elephants, rode chariots. Dresses similar to Hindu rajas.
- Fading Influence: No large-scale Arab immigrations after Qasim, mutual influences faded. Sindh/Multan remained connected to Arab world via long-distance trade and Islam. Caravans to Khurasan via Kabul/Bamiyan. Sindhi Hindus were excellent traders. Alor was a great commercial center. Sindh/Multan contributed significantly to Abbasid exchequer.
- Muslim Colonies: Active trade relations led to Muslim trader colonies in major ports (Cambay, Chaul, Honawar). Hajjaj indirectly maintained a large colony in south India. Nawayat community settled on Konkan coast, Tirunelveli. Other groups on Bay of Bengal (8th century). Largest settlement in Malabar. Local ruler conversion spread Islam to Southeast Asia (Malay Peninsula, Indonesia).

6.7 Situation of Constant Flux in West and Central Asia

Turkish Invasions (11th-12th centuries): Climax of background prepared by Sindh conquest. Turks gained foothold on north-western frontiers. Islam entered India via Mahmud Ghazni and Muizzuddin Mohammad Ghouri's plundering raids.
Phases of Invasion: Started with plunder by Mahmud Ghazni (early 11th century), climaxed with establishment of first Muslim state by Muizzuddin Mohammad Ghouri (late 12th century).
Abbasid Decline (late 9th century): Abbasid empire (most powerful in West Asia since 5th century CE) fragmented due to fighting heathen Turks, dissipating resources. Aggressive fledgling states (non-Turk and Turkish) emerged, accepting Caliph/Khalifa's suzerainty via manshur (formal letter). Rulers called themselves Sultans.
Turkish Infiltration: 8th century, Turkish nomads infiltrated Transoxiana (Mawaraun Nahr/Fararud). Superior military skills led to conversion to Islam, recruitment as mercenaries/palace guards/slaves by Abbasid Caliphs/Iranian rulers. These Islamized Turkish commanders assimilated Persian culture (language, etiquettes, administration), became bilingual, and expanded power into West Asia and Indian subcontinent.
Political Flux: Post-Abbasid fall, West/Central Asia resembled post-Gupta north India: many rulers fighting for expansion, ambitious officials usurping power. Military power was key for dynasty strength/survival.
Dynasties: Samanid dynasty (c. 874-999 CE) founded by Iranian convert noble. Followed by Ghaznavids (962-1186 CE). Ghaznavids defeated by Seljukid and Khwarizmi dynasties. Khwarizmi empire shattered by Mongol attacks (Chengiz Khan).
Factors for Turkish Military Efficiency:
1. Horses: Finest breeds from Central Asian steppes, bred by sturdy, disciplined warriors. Imported to Arabia/India. Ghur renowned for horse-rearing.
2. War Implements: Ghur and neighboring areas rich in metals (iron). Specialized in weapon production, exported to other lands. Hududul Alam (10th century geography text) mentions slaves, armor (zirah), coats of mail (jaushan), good arms from Ghur. Mahmud Ghazni (1020 CE) employed Ghurid officers as siege-warfare experts. Ghur had crucial requisites: horses and iron.
3. Ghazi Spirit: Turkish warriors' success in West Asia fighting non-Turkish nomadic Turkmen/Turkomans (Guzz/Oguzz) in Kara-Khitai steppes. Raids for slaves (demand in Herat, Sistan, Samarqand, Bukhara). Warriors earned through plunder. Aim: spread Islam among non-Muslims. Mahmud Ghazni embodied this spirit in Indian raids.

6.8 Ghazi Inroads in the North-Western Region of India

Alp-tigin: Samanid commander in Khurasan, proclaimed independent ruler in Ghazni (south Zabulistan) in 963 CE.
Alliances against Ghaznavids: Hindu Shahi kings of Afghanistan, Bhatti emperors near Multan, Muslim Amir of Multan allied to protect borders.
Sabuktagin: Alp-tigin's successor, aimed at Hindu Shahi areas from 977 CE. Conquered Zabulistan and Afghanistan by late 10th century, laying foundation for Turkish inroads into India.
Mahmud Ghazni (Sultan Mahmud bin Sabuktigin): Continued Ghazi raids from 999 CE. Title "Amir Mahmud" on coins, not "Sultan Mahmud Ghazni." Earned "Sultan" from conquests in Persia/Transoxiana.
Battle with Jayapal (1001 CE): Cavalry and skillful tactics led to severe defeat of Jayapal (Hindu Shahi ruler). Waihind/Peshawar devastated. Mahmud conquered territory west of Indus. Jayapal self-immolated due to humiliation.
Anandapal (Jayapal's son): Continued to challenge Turkish raids. Mahmud conquered upper Indus (1006 CE) after tough interface. Punjab province won three years later (Chhachh/Chach plains). Nandana/Nandna fort (Salt Range) captured. Anandapal lost battle, suffered financial/territorial loss, signed treaty (1010 CE), died naturally.
Further Conquests: Bhimgarh fort (Reasi, Chenab river) captured. Anandapal allowed to rule Punjab as Mahmud's feudatory. Lahore annexed (1015 CE), extending empire to Jhelum river. Multan (Muslim Sultan) conquered despite Anandapal's alliance.
Kashmir: Mahmud's forces defeated in Kashmir (1015 CE) due to weather, his first defeat in India.
Motivations: Raids aimed at wealth acquisition in Gangetic plains, making upper Ganga doab a neutral territory.
Gangetic Plains Expeditions: Three expeditions after Punjab.
- Late 1015 CE: Marched along Himalayan foothills, defeated local Rajput ruler at Baran/Bulandshahar (with feudatory help). Plundered Mathura and Vrindavan temples.
- Mathura Plunder: Holy city, temples "not built by man but by Jinn," colossal golden/silver idols, jewels. Town wall exquisite, two gates on Yamuna. Thousands of houses with temples. Mahmud amazed by central temple, estimated 100 million dinars and 200 years to build. Ordered temples burnt, idols crushed, city ravaged for 20 days. Spoils: five great gold idols, vast smaller silver images (over 100 camels' load). Total booty: three million rupees. 5000 Hindus taken captive. Some temples left standing due to massive size.
- Kannauj Attack: Most stunning foray. Raja fled, seven forts fell in one day. Opulent temples spared none. Neighboring rulers (Chandal Bhor of Asi, Chand Rai of Sharwa) fled to hills, tracked down. Slave markets of Persia satiated. Wealth funded Central Asian wars. Extended empire in Iran, gained Khalifa's recognition.
- Later Raids (1019, 1021 CE): Two more raids in Ganga valley, less gain. Aimed to break Rajput alliance. Defeated Gwalior Rajput king (who helped Hindu Shahi) and Candela rulers. Accepted nominal tribute from Candela monarch Vidyadhar.
- Last Major Raid (1025 CE): Somnatha temple (Saurashtra, Gujarat). Crossed Thar desert. Temple had 100,000 pilgrims, 1000 brahmanas, dancers/singers. Garbhagriha had famous linga with gems. Mahmud scaled walls, slew 50,000 Hindus. Stone cast down, fragments to conqueror's palace. Temple gates to Ghazni. Million pounds' treasure.
- Mahmud's Legacy: Champion of Islamic faith, trailblazer. Feat embellished with legends.
- Return Difficulties: Forces led astray by guides, many perished in desert due to water scarcity. Attacked by Jats of Salt Range. Mahmud led troops into India again to punish Jats. Built fleet at Multan (1400 boats, spikes, rams, 20 archers, naphtha bombs), sank/burnt Jat vessels (4000 numerical strength). Details possibly fabricated. Returned to Ghazni, died 1030 CE.
- Achievements: Bold warrior, great military capabilities, political achievements. Transformed Ghazna into vast, wealthy empire (Afghanistan, eastern Iran, north-western Indian subcontinent). Patron of Persian literature, transformed Ghazni into learning center (Firdausi, Alberuni, Uzari, Unsuri). Grandeur funded by Indian plunder.

6.9 Fall of the Ghaznavids and the Rise of the Ghurids in Central Asia and India

Mahmud's Rule: Despite plunder, not a good ruler. No lasting institutions, tyrannical rule outside Ghazni.
Utbi's Criticism: Ghaznavid historian Utbi described Khurasan under Mahmud as suffering from "tax levies, sucking dry," with attempts to extract revenue without constructive measures, leading to pauperization.
Ghurid Rise: Unexpected rise of Ghurids from a small, isolated province of Ghur (between Ghaznavid Empire and Seljukids), one of Afghanistan's least developed regions. Hilly tract, main occupation cattle-rearing/agriculture. Islamicized by Ghaznavids (late 10th-early 11th century).
Shansabanids: Humble pastoral chieftains. Became supreme mid-12th century by intervening in Herat (governor rebelled against Seljuqid Sanjar). Ghaznavids captured/poisoned Ghurid emperor Alauddin Hussain Shah's brother. Alauddin captured/destroyed Ghazni, earning title Jahan Soz ("world burner"). Marked fall of Ghaznavids, rise of Ghurids.
Ghurid Motivations: Break free of Seljuqids, control rich Khurasan/Merv. Unpopular for burdensome levies. Constant conflict with Turkish tribes across Oxus river. These reasons led to inroads into India (late 12th century).
Ghiyasuddin Muhammad (1163 CE): Ruler of Ghur. Made younger brother Muizzuddin Muhammad king of Ghazna. Ghiyasuddin focused on Central/West Asian matters.

6.9.1 Political Geography of North India in Early 12th Century

Disunity: North India in 12th century saw same disunity among Rajput states as in 11th century (Ghaznavid raids).
Chahamanas/Chauhans: Powerful state, expanded towards Delhi, Mathura, Gujarat, Rajputana. King Vigraharaj conquered Chittor and Delhi from Tomar monarchs (1151 CE), annexed area between Delhi and Hansi (disputed zone with Ghaznavids). Faced Ghaznavid raids.
Prithviraj III (Chauhan/Rai Pithora): Most prominent emperor. Ascended throne ~16, rapidly expanded empire in Rajputana, conquered petty Rajput states. Expedition against Candelas of Khajuraho/Mahoba (powerful state, fought Ghaznavids). Battles of Alha and Udal (died saving Mahoba from Chauhans) mentioned in Prithviraj-Raso and Alha-Khanda (later works, doubted by historians). Candelas thoroughly defeated by Chauhans. Chauhans aspired to defeat Chalukyas of Gujarat, then Ganga valley and Punjab.
Gahadwalas of Kannauj: Ruled northern plains. Oral narratives (unreliable) claim rivalry with Prithviraj due to abduction of Jai Chand's daughter Sanyogita. Not corroborated by other sources. Chief cause: Prithviraj's urge to annex Ganga plains.
Overall Disunity: Northern/central Indian states divided, unable to unify against Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori, making conquest easier.
Ghori's Rise: Ghiyasuddin made Muizzuddin king of Ghazna (1173 CE). Ghori followed Ghaznavid route to India (north-western region). Conquered Multan (1175 CE) from Carmathians/Karamati. Captured Uchch, moved to Neharwala (Gujarat).

6.9.2 The Battles of Tarain in 1191 and 1192 CE

Ghori's Strategy Shift: After defeat by Chalukyas near Mt. Abu (Gujarat), and Prithviraj's refusal to help, Ghori changed plan. Subjugated Ghaznavids on north-western borders first. Defeated them at Peshawar (1179-80 CE), marched to Lahore (1181 CE) to defeat Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik. Malik allowed to rule Lahore temporarily, then killed by Ghurids.
First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE): Ghori captured Tabarhinda fort (Punjab), strategically important for Delhi. Prithviraj Chauhan reached Tabarhinda to reverse situation. Prithviraj won, Ghori badly wounded (saved by Khalji horseman). Prithviraj underestimated Ghurids, assuming they would only rule frontier areas like Ghaznavids, remained complacent.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE): Ghori returned with good preparations, planned moves. Army: 120,000 fully armored/equipped men. Ferishta (17th century historian) claimed Prithviraj had 300,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants (gross exaggeration to magnify Ghori's victory). Ferishta claimed other "Rais of Hind" joined Prithviraj (doubtful due to Prithviraj's expansionist tendencies, no friendly Rais named). Prithviraj's army likely consisted of feudatories, decentralized, inferior to Muizzuddin's disciplined, centralized army.
Battle Dynamics (Satish Chandra): "More a war of movement than of position." Muizzuddin's "lightly armed mounted archers" harassed Prithviraj's "slow moving forces," creating confusion. Chauhan ruler badly defeated, caught near Sarsuti/Sirsa (Hissar, Haryana).
Prithviraj's Fate: Minhaj Siraj says captured and executed. Hasan Nizami (modern scholar, based on numismatic evidence of "Sri Muhammad Sam" on coins) refutes this, claiming Prithviraj ruled Ajmer as vassal, executed later for rebellion.

6.9.3 Movement Towards the Upper Ganga Valley

Ghori's Cautious Policy: After Tarain, Muizzuddin adopted cautious policy, maintained indigenous rule in many places. Govindraj's son made vassal in Delhi (Ferishta: Tomar chief, helped Prithviraj, died in battle). Prithviraj reinstated as vassal in Ajmer.
Turkish Control: Important places under Turkish control. Region between Siwalik and Ajmer, Hissar, Sirsa annexed. Hissar/Sirsa given to Qutubuddin Aibak. Delhi's strategic location for upper Ganga valley led Turks to keep it. Revolts in Ajmer/Delhi by Prithviraj's son quelled. Delhi under direct Turkish control, Tomar vassal removed (1193 CE) for treason. Ajmer taken, Prithviraj's brother Hari Singh defeated. Govind (Prithviraj's son) moved to Ranthambhor.
Gahadvalas of Kannauj: Ghurids attacked most powerful kingdom. Muizzuddin (1194 CE) captured Meerut, Baran/Bulandshahar, Koil/Aligarh (upper doab, ruled by Dor Rajputs). Gahadvala king Jai Chand did not help neighboring states, costing India heavily.
Battle of Chandawar (1194 CE): Muzzi forces marched to Kannauj/Benaras. Fought in Etawah district. Exaggerated figures for Jai Chand's army (80,000 armourers, 30,000 cavalry, 300,000 infantry, 200,000 archers). Gahadvalas badly defeated. Kannauj besieged (1198 CE). Fort of Asni (Fatehpur) plundered. Benaras plundered, temples destroyed.
Consolidation: Defeats of Chauhans/Gahadvalas were biggest victories, laying foundation for Turkish rule in Ganga valley. Minor revolts suppressed.
Expansion: Turks attacked western/southern regions to protect upper Ganga valley stronghold. Bayana besieged (1195-96 CE). Gwalior fort besieged. Bundelkhand, Khajuraho, Mahoba, Kalinjar conquered from Candela rulers. Forces expanded east/west. Anhilwara (Gujarat) besieged in retaliation for Rai's help in Rajput rebellion. Bihar/Bengal conquered by Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khalji.
Limitations: Turks mostly unable to control distant conquered areas. This cost them heavily due to Central Asian developments (1204 CE). Ghurid Turks defeated by Kara Khanid Turks of Samarqand at Battle of Andkhui (Oxus river). Rumors of Muizzuddin's death led to Khokhars revolt in Punjab. He quelled it but was killed by Karamatias on return.
Delhi Sultanate: His loyal slaves conquered more territories, establishing the first Muslim state in India.

6.10 Reasons Behind Rajput Defeat and Turkish Victory

British Historians' View: Initially attributed Turkish victory to military power/expertise and Rajput pacifism. Ghurid armies from war-like tribes (Indus-Oxus region) had military training from fighting Central/West Asian tribes. Indians lacked such training, were pacifist, not used to Turkish warfare. Lack of Rajput unity.
Rejection of Pacifism: Other historians reject this, citing early medieval period (8th-12th century) as one of warfare and internal struggles, proving Rajputs were not pacifist or lacked martial spirit.
Social Structure (Jadunath Sarkar, Mohammad Habib): Traced Turkish success to Indian social structure vs. Islamic one.
- Sarkar: Islam imparted characteristics (equality, social solidarity, absolute faith in God, sense of mission) to Muslim groups (Arabs, Pathans, Turks), forming foundation for victory.
- Habib (based on Alberuni): Hindu rulers' resistance undermined by:
  1. Caste system: Only kshatriyas participated in wars, impairing military effectiveness.
  2. Social disunity: Caste system discounted social unity vs. Muslim equality. Urban masses converted for better social status.
  However, this is rejected as sources show lower castes (Jats, Meenas, kuvarnas) in Rajput armies, and no mass conversion evidence. Muslim conquerors were also indifferent to lower castes.
Turkish Military Tactics and Technology:
- Weapons: Ghur renowned for metal deposits, weapon manufacture. Iron-stirrup enabled horsemen to use spears without being thrown off. Crossbow.
- Horses: Good breed of Central Asian horses superior to Indian ones.
- Tactics: Unique Turkish tactics on battlefield.
Peter Jackson downplays importance of Turkish tactics/technology.
Broader Frame of Reference: Defeat not just due to Tarain battles.
- Mahmud Ghazni's Invasions (early 11th century): Breached outer defenses (Afghanistan, Punjab), allowing further inroads. Rajput disunity was major factor in Mahmud's victory. Internal rivalries persisted after his death.
- Rajput Weaknesses (Satish Chandra): Lack of proper organization and leadership, despite numbers/weapons. Armies supplied by different feudal lords, lacked unified command. Turkish Sultans maintained large standing armies (paid in cash/iqta system), bought/trained loyal slave warriors.
- Lack of Strategic Perspective (Alberuni): Hindus believed their country, nation, kings, science were supreme. Haughty, foolishly vain, self-conceited, stolid. Kali varjya (ban on crossing salt seas, traveling to lands without munja grass) restricted Indians from acquiring scientific/social knowledge from West/Central Asia. This insularity, neglect of outside world, and lack of strategic perspective led to long-term repercussions.
Conclusion: Rajput defeat rooted in disunity, weak military organization/leadership, inferior tactics/technology, defective social organization (structurally weak states), Hindu insularity, and lack of strategic perspective.

6.11 Comparison between the Ghaznavids and Ghurs

Common Understanding: Turkish invasions (Mahmud Ghazni, Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghouri) are widely known, but differences are less discussed.
Satish Chandra's Distinction: Mahmud was a better general (never defeated in India). Muizzuddin was a tough fighter, learned from defeats (e.g., Anhilwara, First Battle of Tarain), showing "dogged tenacity of purpose and a grim sense of political realism." Mahmud laid roots for Turkish expansion by breaching outer defenses (defeating Hindu Shahis, conquering Punjab).
Recent In-depth Analysis (Peter Jackson, Sunil Kumar): Filled gap in understanding pre-Sultanate north-western India's linkage with Afghanistan, West/Central Asia. Highlighted distinctive features:

Political Systems:
- Ghaznavids: Turkish military slaves, from Samanid capital Bukhara. Authoritarian regime, ignored local ties, strengthened links with Khurasan/Persia. Aspired to Persian culture/learning grandeur. Mahmud brought interpreters on campaigns.
- Ghurids (Shansabanids): Humble pastoral chieftains from Ghur (poor, undeveloped region, Islamicized by Ghaznavids). Lacked resources/aims to imitate Persian culture/glory.
Governance Forms:
- Ghaznavids: Centralized governance.
- Ghurids: Decentralized governance, even at peak power (12th century). Military commanders given governorships, functioned as autonomous sultans/kings in provinces, royal administrative posts/titles as honor.
Reasons for Invading India:
- Ghaznavids: Primarily plunder/loot. Territorial ambitions restricted to Sindh, Multan, Lahore on north-western frontier, not Indian heartland. Capital shifted to Lahore after defeat by Seljuks at Dandanqan (1040 CE).
- Ghurids: Aimed to conquer India.

Unit 7: Social, Cultural and Technological Impacts: Arab and Turkish Invasions

This unit analyzes the social, cultural, and technological impacts of Arab and Turkish invasions on the Indian subcontinent, moving beyond a monochromatic view of these events as mere conquests.

7.1 Introduction to Impacts of Invasions

Beyond "Triumph without Results": Earlier scholars (Stanley Lane Poole, Elphinstone) viewed Arab conquest of Sindh as having no major impact on Indian history, confined to Sindh, not affecting political/military conditions elsewhere.
Refutation: Other scholars argue for multifarious effects beyond political geography.
Unit Focus: Background of invasions, new perspectives on Islam's arrival, social, cultural, and technological impacts of both Arab and Turkish invasions.

7.2 Social, Cultural and Technological Impact of Arab Invasions of Sindh

Chachnama's Role: Persian text by Ali Kufi (1226 CE) is a major historical source for Sindh's history, government, and politics. Earlier interpretations over-emphasized Islam's advent, leading to a skewed understanding. Scholars like Yohanan Friedmann and Manan Ahmed Asif argue it contains diverse information.
Overarching Impacts: Arab conquest led to significant social and cultural impacts on both Indian and Arab worlds.
Socio-Economic and Demographic Changes (Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui):
- Rapid changes in Sindh and south Punjab (Multan territory) after Muhammad bin Qasim's command (early 8th century AD).
- Imposition of a different governance system.
- Introduction of a new legal system ensuring impartial justice irrespective of caste/creed.
- Addition of foreign settlers' colonies to old caste towns. Settlers included officers, army men, merchants engaged in overland/overseas trade (China to Africa).
- Boost to trade/commerce, modification of indigenous crafts, introduction of new ones.
Caste System and Tolerance:
- Qasim did not interfere with the caste system. Yohanan Friedmann notes Qasim sanctioned privileges of high-caste and degradation of lower ones.
- Brahmins were privileged, called "good and faithful people," reappointed to former positions (made hereditary) after Brahmanabad siege.
- Common people had religious freedom, paid same taxes as under Raja Dahar, allowed to build temples, celebrate festivals.
- Jats' low status continued (coarse clothing, barefoot, fined for fine clothes, not allowed to ride horses, burnt alive for stealing, infamous for robbery).
- Policy of flexibility and tolerance was characteristic of early Islam, under Hajjaj's instructions.
- "Brahmanabad Settlement" treated Hindus as "people of the book" or zimmis (protected ones), allowing faith practice in exchange for taxes. This policy was adopted after a plea from Brahmanabad people.
Islamic Proselytization and Social Change:
- Religious conversion brought social change. Maula-i-Islam (high-status convert) indicates downtrodden people and local chiefs converted for freedom from caste restrictions.
- Siddiqui: Religious tension between brahmins and Buddhists led many Buddhists in Sindh to convert, befriending Arabs even before/during conquest. Muhammad Illafi (Qasim's lieutenant) facilitated liaison between Buddhist chiefs and Arab governor. Buddhist chiefs acknowledged Caliph's suzerainty due to brahmana oppression.
- Goodwill fostered Muslim rule, not solely proselytization.
Cultural Exchange: Peaceful interface led to cultural exchange. Arab settlers' urban ethos made old towns centers of acculturation. Egalitarian Islam attracted low castes.
Limitations: Islam's influence confined to urban areas, not countryside. Rural population followed ancestral religion. Muslim missionaries entered in 10th century, partial conversion. Converts ruled until Ghaznavid annexation (1025 CE).
Intellectual Influences: Mutual growth between Indian and Arab cultures.
- Mathematics/Astronomy: Earliest Indo-Arab contact 771 CE. Hindu astronomer/mathematician brought Brahma Siddhanta (Brahmagupta) to Baghdad, translated into Arabic as Sind Hind, influencing Arab astronomy. Indian culture's key contribution: Arabic numerals.
- Medicine: Arabs gave great attention to Indian medicine. At least 15 Sanskrit works (Charaka, Sushruta) translated. Indian doctors (e.g., Manka) gained prestige in Baghdad.
- Other Fields: Astrology, palmistry, statecraft, art of war, logic, ethics, magic. Panchatantra translated as Kalila and Dimna. Indian games (chausar, chess) transmitted.
- Music: Indian music influenced Arabic music. Arab author Jahiz praised Indian music. Technical terms borrowed. Indian music incorporated Perso-Arab airs (Yeman, Hijj).
Technological Impact:
- Weaponry: Arabs introduced Naphtha (Greek fire, distilled petroleum) in 712 CE invasion. Used in unsuccessful attacks on Constantinople (671-78 CE), later learned to use it. Chachnama mentions 900 naphtha throwers (naft-andazan) in Arab army, used with arrows.
- Siege Weapons: Manjaniq (mangonel/trebuchet) used to throw stones at temple pinnacle (Daybul). Consisted of wooden beam, counterweight, sling. Simpler version known from Constantinople war, modified for efficiency. Used by Chinese, Mongols, Delhi Sultanate. Types: manjaniq, maghribi, arrada.
- Indian Inferiority: Inferior Indian tactics/technology aided Arab victory.
Conclusion: Arab conquest of Sindh was not "a triumph without results." Political consequences alone should not overshadow socio-cultural and other impacts.

7.3 The Coming of the Turks

Turkish Penetration: Followed Arab inroads, by 1192 CE. Early medieval period (10th-12th centuries) was preparatory for Delhi Sultanate (1206).
Two Phases of Encounter:
1. Mahmud Ghazni's Raids (early 11th century): Plunder/loot (e.g., Somnatha temple). Aimed to enrich Ghazni. Immense damage, but no intention to spread Islam or establish Muslim state.
2. Muhammad Ghouri's Invasions: Led to establishment of Muslim state.
Ghaznavid Impacts:
- Torchbearer: Constant invasions in north-western India acted as a precursor for later Turkish invaders.
- Trade: Reopened overland commerce between India, Central, and West Asia, accelerating town growth (especially after Ghouri's state).
Historical Interpretation: Impacts often downplayed due to colonial/nationalist divisive narratives. British scholars (James Mill) interpreted Indian history to prolong rule, creating Hindu-Muslim rift. Categorized history into Hindu (Ancient), Muslim (Medieval), British (Modern). Medieval period depicted as "Dark Age" of Muslim invaders spreading Islam, destroying temples, converting, raping. This created dichotomy, portraying Arabs/Turks as crusading invaders.
Modern Scholarship: Satish Chandra, B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Richard Eaton, Finbarr Barry Flood studied varied impacts, emphasizing "creative conflict" and exchanges rather than just confrontation.

7.4 Social, Cultural and Technological Impact of Turkish Invasions

"Creative Conflict" (Richard Eaton): Muslim Turks encountering non-Muslims in Punjab and Gangetic plains led to exchanges, not just plunder/massacre.
Three Levels of Interaction (Satish Chandra):
1. Political (state formation).
2. Masses (religious movements, economic developments).
3. Intellectual and cultural (middle sections, professionals).
Cultural Impact:
- Trade: Ghaznavid conquest of Punjab led to two patterns: plunder and trade. Caravan routes reopened, Muslim traders augmented India's trade with Central/West Asia, developing towns.
- Sufism: Religious preachers (Sufis) came to Punjab, influencing Muslims and some Hindus, opening interaction channel.
- Language: Lahore became center for Arabic/Persian languages/literature. Persian adopted as court language, maintained throughout Muslim rule.
- Religious Tolerance: Ghaznavids recruited non-Muslim soldiers (Hindus) in armies, commanded by Hindu generals (e.g., Tilak, a barber).
- Coinage: 11th-12th centuries, Muslim rulers of Lahore issued coins of Hindu Shahi dynasty (Siva's bull Nandi on one side, Muhammad Ghouri's name in Devanagari with Sanskrit phrase sri samanta deva on reverse). Showed desire for cultural/monetary continuity, avoided commerce disruptions.
- Persianate Traditions: Mahmud Ghazni transformed Ghazni into Persian learning center (Firdausi, Alberuni, Uzari, Unsuri), funded by Indian plunder. India benefited from Persianization of kingship/administration (divine/monarchical kingship, centralization, bureaucracy, military slavery, courtly patronage, Sufis). Mahmud's successors diffused Persian culture into north India.
- Ghurid Cosmopolitanism: Ghourid leaders adopted cosmopolitan posture, embracing Persianate bureaucratic/centralized state. Proclaimed sovereignty at Friday prayer, used imperial umbrella (chahtr) and kettledrums (naubat). Discarded modest title malik al-jabal ('king of mountains'), styled himself 'the great sultan' (sultan al-mu'azzam). Persianate traditions permeated Sultanate period.
Intellectual Impact:
- Alberuni's Kitab-ul-Hind: Accompanied Mahmud Ghazni. Described India's social, political, economic, religious conditions (10th-11th centuries). Accounts on Indian customs/traditions, Hindu attitudes/behavior (especially brahmins). Noted destructive effects of Mahmud's invasion.
- Migration of Brahmins: Turkish invasions led to dislocation of Indian ruling groups. Oldest surviving Veda manuscript found in Nepal (1040 CE), indicating Nepal as a destination for migrating brahmins.
Social Impact:
- Minimal Information: Limited evidence on social impact in late 13th century.
- Religious Conversion Debate: Colonial interpretation focused on temple destruction, idol desecration, forced conversion. Mohammad Habib and Richard Eaton negated this, arguing Mahmud's agenda wasn't conversion. Conversion was economic/religious, gradual, socializing. Low castes attracted by Islam's equality.
- Buddhism's Disappearance: Virtual disappearance by 12th century. Turkish attacks on Buddhist centers/monasteries (11th-12th centuries), many monks killed by Bakhtiyar Khalji during Bengal invasion.
- Caste System: Stayed intact. Alberuni noted decline in power/position of brahmins associated with ruling houses (dismantled by Turks), but priests' position in religious institutions remained stable.
- Iqta System: Turks introduced Persianate traditions like Iqta system (land tracts assigned to soldiers, officers, nobles in lieu of salary). Became hereditary (Firoz Shah Tughlaq). Encouraged cash crops, artisans/craftsmen in towns, flourishing trade/commerce.
- Horse Importance: Horse became important animal for fighting. Jobs related to horses (saddles, horseshoe) gained prominence.
Technological Impact:
- Craft Production: Spinning wheel (charkha), needlework, sericulture, carpet weaving, paper, distillation methods, building materials/techniques. Charkha revolutionized textile industry (Isami's Futuhu-s Salatin).
- Dress: Stitched clothes unfamiliar before Turks. Marco Polo reported no tailors in Malabar. Turks popularized Salwar Kameez. Moti Chandra: jackets, tunics, trousers common by 12th century due to Arab/Persian contact.
- Military Technology: Horse-shoe (nal) of iron/steel (mentioned by Ghaznavid poet Mas'ud Sa'd Salman, Persian poet Nizami Ganjawi).
- Architecture: Use of lime/mortar as cementing material, arch, dome. Minarets to commemorate victories (Ghaznavid court). Jam Minaret (Afghanistan) precursor to Qutb Minar (Delhi), inspired by Ghorian minaret of Khwaja Siyah Posh (Sistan). Served as victory memorial and mazinah for prayer.
- Comparison with Arab Invasions: Turkish invasions also had far-reaching impacts. Key difference: Turks established a full-fledged state in 13th century.

Unit 8: Society, Economy, Polity and Culture: East and North-East India

This unit explores the political, economic, social, and cultural aspects of early medieval East and North-East India, focusing on the Palas of Bengal and the kingdoms of Assam.

8.1 Introduction to East and North-East India

Rise of Small Kingdoms: Early medieval period saw the emergence of small kingdoms, some participating in north Indian politics.
Palas of Bengal: Chief political power, covering Bihar and Bengal, occasionally Assam. Involved in Tripartite Struggle over Kannauj. Ruled 750 CE-1156 CE, replaced by Senas. Lost power briefly in 9th century, regained in 10th.
Pala Patronage: Known for patronage of art and education (Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantpuri universities). Artwork (paintings, sculpture) influenced Tibet, Nepal, Southeast Asia.
Assam (Kamrupa/Pragjyotisha): Initially under Palas, became independent in 9th century. Succession of Salambas and Palas of Assam. Sources: inscriptions, Kalika Purana (10th century).

8.2 Polity

Pala Polity Reconstruction: Based on numerous inscriptions detailing land donations to religious institutions (brahmanas, Shaiva temples, Buddhist monasteries). Few inscriptions provide administrative details.
Pala Monarchy: Gopala (750-775 CE) was elected by people to end matsyanyaya (anarchy) after attacks by Yashovarman (Kannauj), Lalitaditya (Kashmir), Harsha (Kamarupa). Successors followed hereditary succession.
Royal Titles: Rulers adopted high-sounding titles: maharajadhiraja, parameshvara, parama-bhattaraka.
Ministers: Assisted by mantrins and sachivas. Badal pillar inscription indicates hereditary ministerial positions.
Administrative Machinery: Resembled Guptas'. Kingdom divided into bhuktis (provinces) governed by uparikas. Bhuktis contained vishayas (districts) governed by vishyapati, and gramikas (villages). Adhikarana dealt with land-grants at vishaya level. Intermediate unit of 10 villages managed by dasa-gramika possible.
Officials/Vassals: Mention of rajaputra, rajan, rajanyaka, ranaka (defeated rulers, vassals).
Capital: No fixed capital. Several shifting capitals on Ganga banks: Pataliputra, Mudgagiri, Ramavati, Vataparvataka, Vilasapura or Haradhama, Sahasaganda, Kancanapura, Kapilavaska.
Assam Polity (Salamba Dynasty, 800-1000 CE): Independent under Harjavarman. Rulers took imperial titles: Parameshavara, Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja. Harjaravarman's abhisheka (coronation) by merchants and princes. High officials: Mahapratihara, Mahasainyapati, Brahmanadhikara.
Assam Administrative Divisions: Kingdom subdivided into mandalas and vishyas. Vishya-karnika mentioned at vishaya level. Rajani, rajaputra, ranaka mentioned as vassals.
End of Salamba Dynasty: Last ruler Tyagasimha died heirless.
Palas of Assam: New dynasty came to power. First ruler Brahmapala I elected by people (reminiscent of Gopala). Durjaya as new capital (identified with Guwahati). Ratnapala (most famous, ruled >26 years). Dynasty lasted till early 13th century.
Nature of East Indian State:
- Assam: J.B. Bhattacharya argues for a stable entity with little change since 4th century CE, similar to Gangetic plains polities.
- Pala State: R.S. Sharma argues for feudalization of polity, reflected in land grants (Dharmapala onwards) to brahmins, Shaiva temples, Buddhist monasteries. Grants eroded state authority, gave donees tax/fine collection rights, freedom from royal interference. Further feudalization in 9th-10th century with grants to officials. Rulers used imperial titles. Vassals used feudal titles.
- Assam Feudalization: Similar argument for Assam (brahmanas receiving land grants since 4th century CE).
- Integration (B.D. Chattopadhyaya): Views land grants as integration, not feudalization. State polity expanded into tribal areas via brahmins legitimizing new monarchies, patronized by local ruling families. Brahmins settled new areas, appropriated local tribal cults/deities, identified with Brahmanical deities.
- Naraka Legend (Assam): Visible in Naraka legend. Early Sanskrit texts (Arthashastra, Epics) depict Naraka as malevolent danava. By 9th-10th century, Kalika Purana and inscriptions transform him into ideal ruler with Ikshvakus ancestry.

8.3 Economy

Land Grants: Instruments of social and economic change, leading to significant agricultural expansion.
Pala Agriculture: Controlled fertile eastern Ganga plains, well-suited for rice. Importance of agriculture seen in texts like Krishiparashara (detailing operations). Inscriptions mention trees (coconut, jackfruit, mango, betel nuts).
Assam Agriculture: Brahmaputra valley focal point for rice. King Harjaravarman (9th century) built embankments to encourage agriculture.
Trade: Important for both kingdoms.
- Assam: Connected with Tibet and China via trade routes. Known for black aloe timber, bamboo, cane, silk cotton trees (for silkworms), rich gold deposits on Brahmaputra banks. Possibly imported horses from Tibet.
- Palas: Controlled Bay of Bengal ports, access to Southeast Asia and China. Ports connected to inner riverine routes on Ganges/Brahmaputra. Arabic texts praise textiles and swords from Pala kingdom.

8.4 Society

Sources: Brahmavaivrata Purana and Brihadharma Purana for Bengal society.
Varna System (Bengal): R.S. Sharma notes significant difference from north India. Only two castes: brahmanas and sudras. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas not reflected.
Sudras (Bengal): More numerous, formed main ranks of peasantry and artisans. Significant number were tribals.
- Brahmavaivrata Purana (10th-15th century): Divides sudras into three categories:
  - Uttama (high): ambastha (physician), gandhika (perfumer), vanik (trader), modaka (confectioner), malakara (garland maker). Also called sat sudras (could offer water to brahmins).
  - Madhyama (middle): svarnakara (gold smith), abhira (tribal), jailka (fishermen), rajaka (washerman).
  - Low-born/antyaja: chandala, charmakara.
- Brahmana Sub-castes: Land grants indicate growing complexity, emergence of brahmana sub-castes. 56 sub-castes mentioned in Bengal, identified by Vedic branch, gotra, village.
- Arya Gotras: Priests from non-Aryan tribes given Arya gotras.
Assam Society (Nayanjot Lahiri, 1990): Inscriptional data. Brahmins granted land in agricultural areas. Lands cultivated by tribes (Mikirs, Khasis, Kukis, Kacharis). Contact with brahmins assimilated these groups into traditional Hindu fold.
Peasantry: Swelled with inclusion of boatmen, weavers, potters (took to agriculture due to lack of demand for their professions).
Middle Caste Groups: Inscriptions mention Kayasthas, Lekhakas, Daivajnas, Vaidyas. Baruah (2016) suggests these were occupations/officers, becoming castes later.

8.5 Culture

Pala Contribution: Great patron of art and literature, influencing Southeast Asia, Nepal, Tibet.
Sculptural Art: Most significant legacy. Depicted Hindu and Buddhist themes in metal and stone.
- Stone Sculpture: Mostly schist or phyllite (greyish to grey-black). Buddhist images depict Buddha's life (e.g., victory over Mara before Enlightenment). Buddha images ornamented with crown/necklace (signifying spiritual achievements). Hindu images more common from 11th century CE (saint Agastya, Sun god Surya).
- Metal Images: Copper or alloy, some gold/silver. Depict Bodhisattvas or Hindu gods (Vishnu). Distinguished by intricate ornamentation.
Paintings: Few samples survive (murals at Nalanda, palm leaf manuscripts on Buddhism). Depict Buddha's life. Miniatures placed anywhere in manuscript. Common colors: red, yellow, blue, green, black (for outlines). Figures more animated than sculptures. Style widely copied (Kashmir, Ladakh, Myanmar, Nepal, Tibet).
Learning and Education: Palas patronized. Nalanda University flourished, popular among foreign monks.
Nalanda Copper Plate: King Devapala's plate records donation of five villages by Srivijayan king of Java, Sumatra, Malaysia for upkeep of monastery at Nalanda. Chinese Buddhist monk Jiye reported Chinese monasteries (Hansi) at Nalanda.
Other Universities/Monasteries: Odantapuri, Vikramshila, Somapura.
Sanskrit Literature: Cultivated court language. Important literary/technical works composed.
- Law: Jimutavahana's Dayabhaga (influential in Bengal/Assam).
- Medicine: Madhava's Rug-vinischaya (ailments). Surpala's Sabda pradipa (medicinal plants). Chakrapanidutt's commentaries on Charaka/Susruta.
- Kavya: Sandhyakaranandi's Ramacarita (dual narrative of Rama and Ramapala).
- Tantric Buddhism: Treatises produced at universities.
- Proto-Bengali: Beginning of composition (Charyyapadas, Buddhist poems).
Assam Literature: After freeing from Palas, Salamba ruler Harjavarman built new capital Haruppeswara. Follower of Shaivism, built Siva temples (ruins in Tezpur). Patronized Sanskrit. Beginning of Assamese literature: Bihu Geet (poems), Dakabanita (wise sayings).

Unit 9: Political and Cultural Expansion in Southeast Asia

This unit examines the motivations, processes, and impacts of Indian political and cultural expansion into Southeast Asia during the early medieval period, including the Chola naval expedition against Srivijaya.

9.1 Introduction to Southeast Asian Interactions

Maritime Trade: Early medieval India actively involved in Persian Gulf and South China Sea trade. Arabs monopolized Asian trade. India was a popular destination.
Trade Routes: Ancient spice and silk trade routes connected India globally.
Evidence: Inscriptional records, indigenous sources, archaeological sources, travelers' accounts confirm trade links.
- Telaga Batu inscription (Indonesia, 7th century): Mentions ship captain, long-distance maritime trade.
- Kaladi inscription (Javanese, 10th century): Mentions Dravidians, Kalingas, Sinhalese.
- Javanese/Old Balinese inscriptions: Mention foreign traders (banyaga) and merchant guilds (banigrama).
Southeast Asian States: Powerful states emerged (5th-13th centuries), adopting Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sanskrit as official language.
Indian Influence: Not imposed, but Indian traditions significantly contributed to Southeast Asian civilization. Local chieftains adopted Indian kingship concepts with aid of Indian priests/scholars. Rulers/elite became channels for transmission. Traditions localized at local level.
Southeast Asia's Importance: Malay Archipelago crucial for links. Well-known since antiquity due to strategic location.
- Ancient Indian literary works (Arthashastra, Puranas, Ramayana, Niddesa, Milinda-Panha, Mahavamsa, Tibetan sources): Refer to Suvarnabhumi (land of gold), Suvarndvipa (island of gold), Yavadvipa.
- Ancient Greek writings (The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Ptloemy’s Geography): Mention Chryse (Land of Gold), Chersonesus Aurea.
- I-tsing (7th century Chinese traveler): Visited Srivijaya kingdom of Sumatra.
- Arab writers (Al Biruni, Haraki, Yakut): Refer to Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa.

9.2 Diffusion of Indian Traditions

Source of Diffusion Debate: No unanimity on whether influence spread from south India (Coedes, Stargardt), western part, or eastern coast. No single region or culture attributed.
"Indianization" Theory: Nationalist Indian historians and early 20th-century Western scholars (Quaritch Wales) regarded Southeast Asia as 'Farther India' or 'Greater India,' an Indian colony. Believed Indian rulers/adventurers established kingdoms via sea routes, initiating "Indianization." George Coedes credited Indian brahmins/high castes for initiating interaction, fortifying local chiefs' authority, giving political legitimacy through intermarriages.
Rejection of "Indianization" Theory (post-1960s):
- Projected indigenous population as passive recipients.
- No large-scale Indian migration (no major demographic change).
- No political allegiance to medieval Indian rulers.
- No economic exploitation.
- Absence of Indian caste system.
- Oliver Wolters: Indian influence was mutual sharing. Southeast Asian traders brought knowledge. Rulers saw interaction as favorable for administration/technology, advantageous against rivals. Slow cultural amalgamation.
- Recent writings: Synthesis of indigenous and Indian elements, not blatant appropriation or imposition. Indian influences selectively assimilated, leading to "localization of Indian culture."
Hypotheses on Indian Expansion:
- Kshatriyas: Warrior class spread influence via warfare, conquest, armed colonization, intermarriages. Debunked as coercive dissemination. Chola naval victory against Srivijaya was an exception to pacific penetration.
- Vaishyas (trading class, N.J. Krom): Married local women, transmitted culture. Objected by J.C. Van Lear as low-caste merchants with limited knowledge couldn't transmit complex philosophy. Failed to explain dissemination in remote areas (Kedu, Pranbana in Java) from coastal areas.
- Brahmanas and Buddhist Monks: Propagated culture via trade routes. Literate, high-caste, well-versed in Sanskrit (explaining loan words). Traveled with merchants.
Current Belief: Penetration began with merchants and kshatriya adventurers. Brahmins later accompanied. Collective interaction led to cultural adaptation. Indian merchants, traders, and priests played a role in state formation.

9.3 State Formation in Southeast Asia

Multifaceted Dynamics: Trade relations between India and Southeast Asia made state formation more complex. Archaeological sources corroborate trade's role.
Diverse Interactions: Not just traders/merchants, but seafaring communities, religious groups, scholars, pilgrims. Religions propelled seafaring. Diverse communication channels aided transition from chiefdoms to states.
Kingdoms:
- Funan (1st century CE, south Cambodia/Vietnam): First Southeast Asian state with sophisticated political base, Indian vocabulary/technical knowledge. Adopted Hinduism as state-religion. Declined due to civil war (late 6th century).
- Chen-la: Hindu Khmer state, succeeded Funan.
- Angkor/Khmer Empire (9th-13th century): Evolved from Funan/Chen-la. Reached glory under Jayavarman VII (c. 1181-1218). Vast territory (modern Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam). Complex irrigation system learned from India.
- Srivijaya (670 CE, Sumatra): Most important Hindu kingdom. Great trade/culture center, developed maritime polity. Evolved into Shailendra Empire (maritime/commercial power). I-tsing: Srivijaya supplanted Malayu kingdom (late 7th century), promoted Buddhism. Vat Sema Murong inscription (775 CE) emphasizes Srivijaya's rapid rise as overlord, naval/commercial power.
- Mataram (9th century, Central Java): Important political ally of Srivijaya. Developed intricate economic infrastructure, regional/long-distance trade. Huge paddy terraces, wet rice farming, agricultural surplus for export. Mataram dynasty was Buddhist. Sanskrit inscriptions show arrival of religious teachers from Gujarat/Gaur (Bengal). Interactions led to first standardized indigenous coinage (local/Indian systems). Prominent Indian Buddhists visited (Vajrabodhi, Atisa Dipankara). Palas (Bengal) had cordial relations with Srivijaya.
Indian Influence on Kingship:
- Folklore: Marriage between Indian brahmana Kaundinya and Naga princess Soma explained Hindu kingdoms' origin. Royal families of Cambodia/Vietnam trace lineage to Soma/Kaundinya.
- Scholarly Views: Paul Wheatley, Kenneth R. Hall: early Southeast Asian society was tribal, ruled by chiefs. G. Coedes: cultural dependency on India due to Hinduism/Buddhism. I.W. Mabbett: states formed by borrowing Indian concepts of leadership, ideology, agricultural technology. O. Wolster: tribal societies viewed chieftains as superior, personal achievements crucial. Indian religious traditions conducive to chiefs' political aspirations, imparting sanctity.
- Brahmana Priests' Role: Important in royal rituals. Introduced Indian court rituals, customs, kingship concepts. Adept in Sanskrit, sacralized rulers through rituals/sacrifices, concocted genealogies, increased prestige/power. Aided administration (Indian model). Introduced Manusmriti. Channel for political legitimacy.
- Divine Status: Rulers linked themselves to Hindu/Buddhist deities (avatars/reincarnations of Shiva, Vishnu, Bodhisattva) to strengthen temporal authority. Devaraja (divine king) cult revived by Jayavarman II (Indian origins), with Hiranyadama (Indian brahmana) performing rituals.
- Iconography: Images of Hindu deities enforced political ideology. Temples housed idols of deities, sometimes kings/royal family members (deceased/living). 9th century, Indravarman I (Angkor/Khmer king) built six towers of Preah Ko temple with royal family images. Jayavarman II's image resembled Shiva. Bayon's towers adorned with 216 colossal Bodhisattva Lokesvara faces (resembling Jayavarman VII). Shiva/ancestor worship fused for godly status. Java rulers represented as Vishnu with Shiva emblems.
- Sanskrit Terms: Suffix 'varman' (shield/protection) used by south Indian rulers (Pallavas) and later in Southeast Asia. Khmer rulers used Hindu god names as prefixes (Indravarman II, Suryavarman II).
- Inscriptions: Shweguyi pagoda inscription (Pagan, Myanmar) by King Alaungsithu (1113-1167 CE) linked ruler to Buddhism, instructed subjects not to transgress Buddha's teachings.
- Cultural Fusion: Southeast Asian states absorbed Indian themes/myths (Epics, Buddhist/Hindu iconography, architecture, motifs), creatively fusing them with local climate to create distinct cultural identities.

9.4 Chola Naval Expedition and the Invasion of Srivijaya

Chola Re-emergence: Ruled in Sangam age (300 BCE-600 CE), reduced to vassal state of Pallavas. Re-emerged in 850 CE as Pallava authority weakened. Imperial Chola kingdom expanded under Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola.
Rajendra Chola's Expansionist Policy: Conquered Sri Lanka (begun by Rajaraja), Maldives, Andaman and Nicobar islands. Turned attention to Malay Archipelago.
Maritime Silk Route: India at center. Control crucial for dominance. Cholas aimed to position economic machinery (trade guilds) favorably in international markets.
Trade Guilds: Powerful and resourceful (Manigramam, Nanadesi, Valanjiyar, Ayyahole, Ainnurruvan). Lent money to Chola rulers, obliging king to provide broader economic avenues.
Srivijaya Conflict: Srivijaya kingdom hindered Chola commercial interests in Malay Archipelago. Fall of Abbasid Caliphate changed maritime silk route (Fatimid ships via Red Sea, Gulf of Aden). Srivijaya rulers encouraged sea pirates, harassing Tamil traders.
Chola-Angkor Alliance: Hindu Shaivite Chola rulers allied with Shaivite Angkor king against Buddhist Srivijaya and its ally Tambralinga. Angkor sought military help. Cholas attacked Tambralinga, Srivijayas helped ally.
Chola Naval Prowess: Technologically advanced navy. Rajendra Chola sent huge fleet in 1025, won decisive victory, captured Srivijaya ruler.
Records of Invasion: Tanjavur temple inscription mentions Chola invasion of Srivijaya and 12 other port cities on Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Nicobar Islands. Also recorded in Malay literary work, Sejarah Malayu.
Rationale for Invasion:
- Srivijayas had friendly relations with Rajaraja I. Leiden copper plates show Rajaraja Chola I issued order for maintenance of Chudamani vihara (built by Srivijaya king Sri Vijaya Maravijayattungavarman at Nagapattinam), gifted Anaimangalam village.
- Nilkantha Shastri: Srivijaya hindered Chola trade with East.
- Meera Abraham: Direct relation between merchant guilds and Chola polity. Early medieval period saw rise of organized merchant associations with autonomy, engaged in trade. Tamil inscriptions (Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Javanese) show strong presence of Indian merchant guilds.
- Commodities: Southeast Asia exported precious stones, corals, aloe wood, cloves, copper, tin, camphor. India exported silk, spices, textiles, pearls, corals, medicinal herbs. Medieval links associated with political environment, government policies (taxes).
- Cholas established permanent military garrisons in Srivijaya/Angkor to facilitate commercial interests. Influx of Tamil trade guilds. Matrimonial alliance: Rajendra Chola married Onang Kiu (Vijayottungavarman's daughter). Diplomatic missions sent (Dipankar/Devakala, Chola prince, to China as Srivijian ambassador, later Kulothunga Chola). Virarajendra Chola helped Srivijaya in Keddah rebellion (1068).
- No Direct Control: Despite successful invasion, Cholas did not establish direct control, but plundered Srivijaya's wealth, weakening its power.
- Chola Maritime Power: Thriving intercontinental trade with Tang/Song China, Srivijaya, Abbasid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate. Rajendra Chola eliminated sea piracy. Well-organized navy, king as Supreme Commander.
- Chinese Records: Cholas wrongly designated as Srivijaya's vassal state, possibly due to Srivijayan ambassadors' diplomacy. Indicates Southeast Asian states evolved into major maritime political powers, guarding commercial interests.
- Commercial Opportunities: Chola naval expedition brought more opportunities for merchant guilds.

9.5 Art and Architecture

Indian Influence: Attested by artistic traditions in Southeast Asia, reflecting intra-regional and inter-regional idea exchange. Common themes, local adaptations.
Local Craftsmanship: Local craftsmen/artists, not Indian artisans, produced art, incorporating local practices/beliefs (primarily religious).
Hindu Deities: Images of Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesh, Mahishasurmardini, Harihara, etc., and Buddhist stupas/sculptures with local features found.
Localization Examples:
- Javanese Ganesha: Depicted seated on a throne decorated with skulls (complete Javanese conception).
- Po Nagar (Cham Goddess Mother): Originally indigenous formless goddess. Transformed into Shiva's Shakti (not Uma/Parvati), granted new title Bhagavati Kauthareshvari, elaborate form. Hymn dedicated to her (Sriparameshvara, 1050 CE).
- Fusion: Local deities fused with Hindu divine attributes, resulting in modified divinity.
- Adornments/Rituals: Extravagant Indian style, costumes, embellishments discarded for local materials. Rituals localized.
Buddhist Architecture:
- Myanmar: Hinayana Buddhism predominant, Mahayana/Tantrism flourished. Stupa architecture shows influences from India, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Indonesia, China, resulting in Myanmarese style. Bronze artifacts (late Gupta style), Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple, Ananda pagoda show strong Indian influence. Nat Hlaung Kyaung built for Indian merchants/brahmanas in Anawratha's service, houses dasavatara of Vishnu. Ananda pagoda (Kyansittha, 1105 CE) is Buddhist, features shikhara, circumambulatory corridors in old Indian temple style of Bengal/Odisha.
- Champa (2nd-17th century, ancient Siam/Thailand): Rulers commissioned mammoth religious structures. Hindu temples (7th-14th century) on coastal plains. King Indravarman II (875 CE) built huge Buddhist monastery at Dong Duong.
- Khmer Empire (Siam): Inherited Hinduism/Buddhism. Built wat (temples) in Dravidian style. Angkorwat (Suryavarman II) is largest Hindu temple, dedicated to Vishnu. Reliefs depict Ramayana/Mahabharata stories. Naga figure dominant motif (from Kaundinya/Soma legend). Huge bronze 'Reclining Vishnu' (late 11th century) shows Indian influence.
- Shailendra Rulers (750-850 CE, central Java/Sumatra): Mahayana Buddhists. Commissioned magnificent Buddhist structures. Borobudur stupa (9th century) is largest Buddhist structure, nine successive mandalas, bell-shaped stupa. Bas-reliefs depict Buddha's life.
- Hindu Response: Sanjaya dynasty ruler Rakai Pikatan built Prambanan Hindu temple (Chandi Prambanan, Java's largest Hindu temple). Shivagrha inscription (856 CE) for Shiva worship.
- Artistic Influence: Cordial Shailendra-Pala relations led to Nalanda-style Buddhist art/sculptures in Java, influencing peninsular Thailand. Contributed to Indian structures. Pala ruler Devpala's inscription affirms Balaputradeva (Suvarnadvipa/Javabhumi king) built monastery at Nalanda.

9.6 Literature and Drama

Sanskrit Patronage: Brahmana priests played major role in state formation, leading to royal patronage of Sanskrit language/literature. Numerous inscriptions (stone pillars, metal plates) in Sanskrit, primarily on political activities. Expanded local language vocabulary.
Buddhist Texts: Arrival of Buddhism introduced pedagogical texts.
Scripts: Kawi script (Old Javanese, 8th-16th century, maritime Southeast Asia) was a locally modified Sanskrit writing system. Sanskrit and Pallava scripts stimulated Old Balinese scripts.
Official Languages: Sanskrit and Pali for Dvaravati, Srivijaya. Used in Myanmar till 13th century. Local languages (Mon, Khmer) used Pali/Sanskrit words/texts. Sanskrit terms used for kings/places.
Hindu Literary Works: Early medieval Southeast Asian kingdoms familiar with Vedas, Puranas, Dharmashastras, Panini's grammar, six systems of Indian philosophy.
- Yashovarman (Kamboja Empire founder) compared to Panini, wrote commentary on Patanjali's Mahabhasya.
- Suryavarman I: Great Sanskrit scholar, Vedic learning.
- Horashastra (astrology), Siddhantashastra (astrology), Ayurveda (medicine), Gandharvavidya (music) pursued.
- Myanmar's law codes (Wagaru Dhammasattha) incorporated Manusmriti codes.
Epics' Impact: Ramayana and Mahabharata visibly impacted Southeast Asian culture. Themes: power, political relations, supernatural elements (spirits, demons, ghosts, magical weapons).
- Ramayana: Story adopted, characters/storyline same, but locale indigenized with local characters. New elements added (e.g., Lao Ravana as refined prince).
- Yama Zatdaw (Myanmar): Introduced during King Anawratha's reign, narrates Rama's story through dance/drama. Yama is transliteration of Rama.
- Ramakien (Thailand): National Epic.
- Shadow Puppet Theatre: Ramayana/Mahabharata inspired wayang kulit and wayang golek (Java). Indian elements transmitted to south Thailand shadow puppetry (nang talung, nang yai).
Localization: Indian traditions modified to suit new environment as they diffused.

Unit 10: Agriculture, Landlord, Peasants and Tribals: The Feudalism Debate

This unit delves into the "Feudalism Debate" in early medieval Indian history (7th-13th centuries), examining the economic, social, and political transformations that led scholars to conceptualize this period as feudal, segmentary, or integrative.

10.1 Introduction to the Feudalism Debate

Early Medieval Period (7th-13th centuries): Marked by fundamental changes in economy, society, and polity.
Theoretical Constructs: Scholars conceptualized these changes as:
- Feudalism theory.
- Segmentary state formulation.
- Integration and continuity (of processes from early Historic period).
Unit Focus: Discusses feudalism as a construct based on these changes, a subject of rich and nuanced debate.

10.2 What is Feudalism?

Origin: Term coined in Western Europe (late 8th-14th century).
Core Concept: Land grants (fief) as real property rights, around which social and economic relationships revolved.
Land as Wealth: In pre-modern societies, land was the chief source of wealth. Ownership, labor terms, and income from land determined economic condition, individual wealth, and status.
Feudalism Definition: Entire complex of social, economic, and political system derived from land relationships.
Serfdom: Basic institution. Serfs worked land with their own tools, tied to land, exploited by lords, barely surviving. Remuneration was labor rent for allotted land. This ensured labor after slavery became unviable.
Indian Context: Unit discusses attributes of early medieval Indian economy, trade, and commerce, and how theorists used this evidence to postulate Indian feudalism.

10.3 Agrarian Economy

Growth of Cultivation: Early medieval India saw growth of cultivation and land relations through land grants (from Common Era to 12th century).
Agricultural Expansion: Greater, more regular use of advanced techniques, plough cultivation, irrigation technology. Institutional management, control of means of production, and new relations of production played important roles.
Rural Tensions: New types of rural tensions emerged.
Commercial Activities: Increased in agricultural and non-agricultural commodities.
Agrarian Expansion Uniformity: Began with brahmadeya and agrahara settlements (land grants to brahmanas) from 4th century, becoming uniform/universal in subsequent centuries. 8th-12th centuries saw culmination of agrarian organization based on land grants to religious/secular beneficiaries (brahmanas, temples, king's officers). Regional variations existed due to geography/ecology.

10.3.1 Agrarian Organization

Complexity: Understood through intensive studies of regional land grant patterns, character/role of brahmadeya, non-brahmadeya, and temple settlements, land rights, interdependence, production/distribution processes.
Brahmadeya: Land grant (individual plots or whole villages) to brahmanas, making them landowners/controllers. Aimed to bring virgin land under cultivation or integrate existing agricultural settlements into new economic order dominated by brahmana proprietors.
Role of Brahmanas: Played major role in integrating socio-economic groups through service tenures and caste groupings under varna system. Growing peasantization of sudras rationalized in Brahmanical social order.
Patronage: Ruling dynasties initiated brahmadeya, followed by chiefs, feudatories.
Benefits of Brahmadeya: Facilitated agrarian expansion, exempted from taxes (entirely or initially for 12 years), endowed with growing privileges (pratiharas). Rulers gained economic advantages (extended resource base) and ideological support.
Transfer of Rights: Land donations implied transfer of more than just land rights. Along with revenues/economic resources, human resources (peasants, cultivators), artisans transferred to donees. Evidence of encroachment on villagers' community lands (lakes, ponds). Brahmanas became managers of agricultural/artisanal production, organized into assemblies.
Remuneration of State Officers: From 7th century, state officers remunerated through land grants. Created a new class of non-brahmana landlords. Practice of land grants to officials (mentioned since c. 200 CE by Manu) gained momentum post-Gupta. Literary works (10th-12th centuries, Central India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal) refer to grants to ministers, kinsmen, military services.
Vassals: Rajas, rajaputras, ranakas, mahasamantas in Pala land charters were mostly land-connected vassals. Incidence of grants to state officials varied. Paramara official ranks rarely received land grants (11th century). Chalukyas of Gujarat granted large territories to vassals/high officers. Odisha had more service grants than Assam, Bengal, Bihar combined.
Intermediaries: Officials' right to specific/exclusive levies created intermediaries with interests in tenant lands.
Religious Establishments: Large-scale gifts to Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical establishments (temples, mathas) were prominent. These centers acted as nuclei of agricultural settlements, integrating peasant/tribal settlements through acculturation, service tenures, or remuneration via temple lands. Temple lands leased to tenants (paying higher share of produce), managed by sabha (brahmadeya) or mahajanas (agrahara).
Non-Brahmana Settlements: Temples became central institutions. Temple lands administered by executive committees of non-brahmana landowners (Velalas of Tamil Nadu; Okkalu, Kampulu of Karnataka/Andhra). Different groups assigned caste/ritual status. "Impure" and "low occupations" assigned untouchable status, kept out of temples, given fringe quarters.
Control: Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical landed elite supervised temple lands and irrigation sources. New landed elite (local peasant clan chiefs, kinship heads, family heads with kani rights) became central to early medieval agrarian organization. Multiple strata of intermediaries emerged between king and producer.
Land Rights: Rights conferred on grantees included fiscal and administrative rights. Taxes (land tax) transferred to donees, not fully exempted. Based on Dharmashastras sanctioning royal land ownership, creating intermediary rights.
Private Ownership: Some communal land rights in early settlements, but private ownership developed, with grantees enjoying alienation rights and hereditary benefits. Land gifts often made after purchase.

10.4 Rural Tension

Heterogeneous Peasantry: Agrarian expansion did not create a homogeneous rural scene. Graded personnel associated with land: kshetrik, karshaka, halin, ardhik (categories of cultivators, no clear landownership).
Distrust of Intermediaries: Damara revolts (Kashmir), Kaivartha rebellion (Ramapal's Bengal), self-immolations over land encroachment (Tamil Nadu), appropriation of donated land by sudras (Pandya) indicate distrust. Donors sought undisputed land, showing potential for turmoil. Hero-stones near agraharas suggest agrarian unrest.

10.5 Agriculture and the Exchange Network

"Closed Village Economy" Theory: Early medieval economy often seen as predominantly agrarian, self-sufficient, subsistence-oriented, not market-driven. Craftsmen/artisans attached to villages/estates/religious establishments. Limited role for traders/middlemen (supplying iron tools, oil, spices, cloth). Market system limited.
Critique of "Closed Economy": This picture true for 300-800 CE. Subsequent 500 years saw rapid increase in agrarian settlements, local markets, organized commerce, itinerant trade, partial monetization (from 9th century).
Agricultural Products: Exchanged with long-distance trade items. Landownership patterns changed. Merchants/craftsmen invested in land (purchased/gifted).
Examples: Jagati-kottali (weavers) and Telligas (oil pressers) in south Karnataka actively participated in agriculture.

10.6 The Characterisation of Early Medieval Agrarian Economy

Feudal Economy vs. Peasant State: Different views on early medieval agrarian economy.
Salient Features (Basis of Feudalism Theory):
1. Hierarchical Landed Intermediaries: Vassals, state officers, secular assignees had military obligations and feudal titles. Sub-infeudation (by donees to cultivate land) created strata of intermediaries (landed aristocrats, tenants, sharecroppers, cultivators). Reflected in power/administrative structure (lord-vassal relationship). Gross unequal land/produce distribution.
2. Forced Labour (vishti): Exercised by brahmana/land grantees. Originally royal prerogative, transferred to grantees, petty officials, village authorities. Over 100 references in Chola inscriptions. Peasants/artisans under vishti. Resulted in serfdom, agricultural laborers reduced to semi-serfs.
3. Curtailment of Peasant Rights: Growing claims by rulers/intermediaries reduced peasant land rights. Many became tenants, facing eviction. Number of ardhikas (sharecroppers) increased. Burden of taxation, coercion, indebtedness.
4. Surplus Extraction: Extra-economic coercion was conspicuous. New property relations led to new economic subordination mechanisms. Over 50 levies mentioned in Rajaraja Chola inscription.
5. Closed Village Economy: Transfer of human resources with land to beneficiaries meant peasants, craftsmen, artisans attached to villages, mutually dependent. Attachment to land/service grants ensured control. Subject, immobile peasantry in self-sufficient villages, buttressed by varna restrictions, marked agrarian economy.

10.7 Trade and Commerce

Interrelated Developments: Nature/extent of money use, market functioning, agricultural production, urban settlement conditions. All linked to land grants (all-India phenomenon, 8th-13th centuries). Trade/commerce also "feudalised."
Trade Definition: Collection, distribution, exchange of goods. Depends on production, transport, safety, exchange patterns, social groups (traders, merchants, peasants, artisans). Political authorities had stake (taxes).
Land Grants and Feudalism: 750-1000 CE: widespread land grants to priests, temples, warrior chiefs, state officials. Emergence of hierarchy of landlords/graded state officials (maha-mandaleshvara, mandalika, samanta, mahasamanta, thakkura) with land interests. Different from actual tillers, lived on surplus. Led to rural economy where local needs met locally, restrictions on producers' mobility. Dearth of metallic money strengthened this trend.

10.7.1 Media of Exchange

Paucity of Coins (750-1000 CE): Major dynasties (Gujara Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas) issued few coins, incomparable to earlier centuries. Money crucial for trade. Lack of coins/coin-moulds suggests shrinkage of trade.
Exceptions:
- Odisha: Complete absence of coins (600-1200 CE), but trade with Southeast Asia via barter.
- Kashmir: Copper coinage from 8th century, poor quality due to trade decline, rise of agriculture.
- Mid-eastern India (Bihar, West Bengal, Bangladesh, 750-1200 CE): No coined money by Palas/Senas, but no dearth of exchange media. Harikela silver coinage, cowries, churni (gold/silver dust) used.
Cowries: Widespread prevalence. 1280 cowries = 1 silver coin. Replaced metallic currency. Excavations at Colgong (Bhagalpur) yielded many cowries.
"Monetary Anaemia" Debate: Cowries seen as poor substitute, unsuitable for long-distance trade, restrictive. Widespread cowries interpreted as evidence of long-distance trade decline.
Impact of Monetary Anaemia: Dwindling trade/lack of metallic money led to self-sufficient village economy, dependence on agriculture, little urge for commodity movement. Closed, stagnant villages.
Decentralized Polity: Lack of coined money hindered paying officers. Rulers assigned land in lieu of cash (secular land grants). Impoverished royal exchequer, corroded central authority. Feudatories amassed wealth, became powerful, undermining ruler's authority.
Feudalism Genesis: Economy/polity conditions led to feudalism. Ruralism, limited trade, not conducive to urban growth.

10.7.2 Relative Decline of Trade

Internal Trade: Fragmentation of political authority, dispersal of power to local chiefs/religious grantees adversely affected trade. Intermediary landlords (less productive areas) resorted to loot, plunder, excessive taxes, dampening traders' enthusiasm. Frequent wars among ruling chiefs discouraged trade.
Literary Evidence: Jain texts (Samaraiccakaha, Kuvalayamala, 8th century) refer to brisk trade/towns, but draw from earlier centuries, not reflecting 8th-century conditions.
Foreign Trade (West): Greatly diminished after fall of Roman Empire (4th century). Byzantine learning silk-making (mid-6th century) caused India to lose important market.
Arab Expansion: Arabs on north-west frontiers (7th-8th centuries) made overland routes unsafe. Kathasaritsagara story: merchants captured by Arabs, sold off, then returned to south for trade. Tibetan/Chinese fights affected Central Asian routes.
Sea Trade Disruption: Arab raids on Broach, Thana (7th century), Valabhi (8th century) disrupted western coast sea trade. Though Arabs later played role in Indian maritime trade (post-10th century), initial raids had adverse effect.
Southeast Asia Trade: References in contemporary literature, but doubtful if it compensated for Western trade loss.

10.7.3 Urban Settlements: Decay

Symptom of Commercial Decline: Decay/desertion of many towns. As trade/craft-goods demand slumped, traders/craftsmen dispersed to rural areas. Towns decayed, townsfolk became part of village economy.
Literary Evidence: Huien Tsang, Puranic records (Kali age) indicate depopulation. Varahamihira (5th century) already noted this trend.
Archaeological Evidence: Excavations reveal poverty of structure/antiquities at Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi. Pan-Indian scene: desertion or decay of urban centers (3rd-8th centuries). Settlements continuing till 8th century deserted thereafter.
Examples of Decay: Ropar, Atranjikhera, Bhita, Eran, Prabhas Patan, Maheshwar, Paunar, Kudavelli. Medieval Kannauj (Farrukhabad) still needs excavation to confirm greatness.
Limited Commercial Activity: Trade in costly/luxury goods for kings, feudal chiefs, temple/monastery heads continued. Articles: precious/semi-precious stones, ivory, horses. Meagre evidence for daily use goods. Inscriptions mention salt/oil (not locally produced).
Nature of Commerce (750-1000 CE): Catered to landed intermediaries/feudal lords, not masses. Pockets of trade (Pehoa, Ahar) did not significantly impact closed economy.
Military/Political Headquarters: Jayaskandhavaras (victorious army camps) became politico-military headquarters. Urban centers as exchange/crafts production faded, replaced by military/political headquarters.
Pilgrimage Centers: Many pilgrimage centers (tirtha) assumed urban proportions. Historians of Indian feudalism argue these undermined production/exchange role of urban centers.
Feudal Economy Symptoms: Bengal (Palas/Senas), Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom (Ganga-Yamuna doab), Rashtrakuta domains (Deccan) showed typical symptoms.

10.8 Indian Feudalism

Early Assimilation (Col. James Tod): 19th century, Tod found lord-vassal relationship (core of European feudalism) replicated in Rajasthan. Lord provided security/subsistence, vassals rendered military/other services, loyalty in perpetuity.
Marxist Influence (mid-1950s-60s): Term feudalism disassociated from lord-vassal, acquired economic meaning in context of Indian class structure.
D.D. Kosambi: Conceptualized feudalism as two-way process ("from above" - state granting land/rights to officials/brahmanas; "from below" - individuals/groups rising to landlords/vassals). Formulated as a formula.
R.S. Sharma's Indian Feudalism (1965): Took up Kosambi's task. Envisioned feudalism as entirely "from above" (consequence of state action). Later focused on other phenomena.
Pirennean Model Emulation: Sharma emulated Henri Pirenne's model of European feudalism (1920s-30s). Pirenne displaced lord-vassal as dominant stereotype, substituted wider societal consequences.
Pirenne's Postulate: "Grand trade" (long-distance trade) in Europe flourished in Antiquity, disrupted by Arab invasions (7th century). Disruption led to ruralization, "closed estate economy" (self-sufficient units, minimal trade). Revival of trade (11th century, Crusades) led to decline of feudalism, revival of cities. Pirenne posited irreconcilable opposition between trade/urbanization and feudalism.
Sharma's Application to India: Copied Pirenne's model. Visualized decline of long-distance trade post-Gupta, urbanization suffered, ruralization. Economic resources not scarce, but currency was. State gave land as payment to employees/grantees (brahmanas). Land grants transferred rights over cultivating peasants to "intermediaries," reducing them to serfs. Rise of intermediaries through state action was crucial.
Other Edifices: Growth of scribes (Kayasthas) to record state grants. Land grants to intermediaries lasted until 11th century, when trade revival reopened urbanization. Sharma did not detail feudalism's decline.
Indian Counterpart to Arab Invasion: B.N.S. Yadava linked Huna invasions to beginning of Indian feudalism.
Peasant Rebellions: Oppressive European feudalism led to massive peasant rebellions (14th century). Sharma sought similar evidence in India, found only Kaivartas (boatmen, part-time cultivators) revolting in 11th century.

10.8.1 Was There Feudalism In India?

Influence of Sharma's Thesis: 1965 thesis greatly influenced subsequent history writing. Other scholars supported with details, but few explored social/cultural aspects. B.N.S. Yadava and D.N. Jha supported it. M.G.S. Narayanan and Noburu Karashima applied it to south India.
Criticism: D.C. Sircar was a prominent critic. Ideological divide between Marxists (Kosambi, Sharma, Yadava, Jha) and Sircar.
Marxist Historiographical School Opening (late 1970s): Debate opened within this school.
International Debate (Maurice Dobb, 1946): Dobb questioned Pirenne's trade-feudalism opposition. Engels' insights: trade revival in Eastern Europe led to "second serfdom." Feudalism didn't decline in Western Europe due to peasant flight to cities from exploitation. Led to international debate (1950s) on compatibility of feudalism and trade.
Annales Paradigm (France): Newer questions explored.
Harbans Mukhia's Question (1979 Presidential Address): "Was There Feudalism in Indian History?" Questioned universality of feudalism theoretically and empirically (comparing medieval India with Europe).
Theoretical Problem: Can feudalism be a universal system? Capitalism driven by profit maximization, expanding globally. Pre-capitalist systems driven by consumption, limited to local/regional. Feudalism could only be regional.
Variations of Feudalism: Positing different variations (European, Chinese, Japanese, Indian) makes definition too loose (synonymous with all pre-capitalist systems) or too precise (useless).
Skepticism: Georges Duby, Jacques Le Goff avoid "feudalism" due to numerous variations.
Empirical Argument (Mukhia): Compared ecological conditions, technology, social organization of labor use in agriculture.
- Western Europe: Four months sunshine, intense labor demand. Low productivity (1:2.5 seed:yield). Solution: tying labor to land (serfdom). Generated lord-serf tension. Led to technological improvement, productivity rise (1:4 by 12th century), population rise, untying of labor, agricultural expansion, trade/urbanization. Black Death (1348-51) caused labor scarcity, lords tried to restore tied labor, prosperous peasants rebelled (14th century). Feudalism reduced to debris.
- India: Ten months sunshine, agricultural processes spread out. Intense heat/rainfall made upper soil fertile, no deep digging needed. Indian bull's hump allowed plough on shoulder. Productivity higher (1:16). Two crops/year. Forms of labor use different. Begar (tied labor, paid/unpaid) used for non-productive purposes (carrying loads, supplying milk/oil to zamindars), not production. Tension over revenue, not labor control. No technological breakthroughs/production transformation like Europe.
Free Peasant Economy: 1979 Address characterized medieval Indian system as free peasant economy, distinct from European serf. Indian peasant controlled labor, state controlled revenue. Tension over revenue didn't affect production system, transformation began in 20th century.
"Feudalism Debate" Publication: Mukhia's paper reprinted in The Journal of Peasant Studies (1981). Special double issue (1985) Feudalism and Non-European Societies, edited by T.J. Byres, expanded debate to China, Turkey, Arabia, Persia. Further papers published until 1993