Unit Three: 1815-1914 - The Role of Imperialism & Nationalism

Congress of Vienna and the Balance of Power

The Congress of Vienna, held between 1814 and 1815, was a significant international conference that took place after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte. The primary goal of this Congress was to restore stability and order in Europe following more than twenty years of revolutionary upheaval caused by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

Key Participants

The major powers involved in the Congress were Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and later France. The Congress aimed to achieve several main goals:

Restoration of Monarchies: This involved reinstating royal families that had been dethroned by Napoleon, a principle known as legitimacy.
Balance of Power: Aimed to prevent any one nation, particularly France, from becoming excessively powerful again.
Containment of France: A strategy focused on surrounding France with strong countries to prevent further aggressive expansions.
Creation of Lasting Peace: The objective was to redraw the European map to reflect political realities without overly punishing France.

Major Outcomes

As a result of the Congress:

France's borders were reduced back to their pre-revolutionary extent of 1792.
New states were established or strengthened including an expansion of the Netherlands, the formation of the German Confederation, and the acquisition of more territory by Austria.
Russia gained control over vast areas of Poland.
Britain secured additional overseas colonies.

This Congress also established a framework for the major powers to meet periodically, called the Concert of Europe, for resolving disputes.

Importance

The Congress significantly contributed to maintaining relative peace in Europe for nearly a century until World War I in 1914. While it temporarily suppressed the spread of liberalism and nationalism, these ideologies gradually gained strength leading to revolutions later in the 19th century.

The Rise of Nationalism: Germany, Italy, and Beyond

Nationalism is a belief that people sharing a common identity—characterized by culture, language, history, and traditions—should form an independent nation. Between 1815 and 1914, nationalism transformed borders, abolished empires, and gave rise to new nations.

Nationalism in Germany (1815–1871)

After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna created the German Confederation, which consisted of 39 small German states dominated politically by Austria and Prussia. Although the German-speaking population shared a common language and culture, they were politically divided. The influences of industrialization and economic connections, through customs unions like the Zollverein, promoted cooperation among the German states.

Key Events Leading to German Unification:

**1848 Revolutions:** Attempted unification efforts by German liberals ultimately failed.
**Otto von Bismarck's Role:** As Prussian Chancellor, Bismarck used military power and diplomacy to unite Germany through a series of conflicts:

**War with Denmark (1864):** Resulted in the annexation of German-speaking territories.
**Austro-Prussian War (1866):** Prussia defeated Austria, establishing dominance over northern Germany.
**Franco-Prussian War (1870-71):** This victory fostered German nationalist pride, leading to the unification of Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm I in 1871 at Versailles.

The emergence of a new powerful Germany shifted the balance of power in Europe and incited tensions, particularly with France and Britain.

Nationalism in Italy (1815–1870)

In 1815, Italy was fragmented into multiple states, some under Austrian control and others ruled by local monarchs. Nationalists sought to unify the Italian peninsula into a single nation.

Key Figures:

**Giuseppe Mazzini:** Played the ideological role of “the heart” for Italian nationalism.
**Count Camillo di Cavour:** The political strategist from Piedmont-Sardinia, referred to as “the brain.”
**Giuseppe Garibaldi:** The military leader known as “the sword.”

Key Steps to Italian Unification:

Cavour allied with France to defeat Austria to liberate northern Italy in 1859.
Garibaldi and his Red Shirts overthrew rulers in southern Italy (1860-61) and surrendered the territories to the king.
Italy was proclaimed as a kingdom under King Victor Emmanuel II in 1861.
Venetia was added post-Austro-Prussian War (1866).
Rome was captured from the Pope in 1870 after French troops drew back during the Franco-Prussian War.

This action resulted in the formation of a single nation, though Italy remained politically fragmented and regionally unstable.

Nationalism beyond Germany and Italy

Austria-Hungary:

A multi-ethnic empire facing threats from nationalism.
The Ausgleich of 1867 led to the formation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

Ottoman Empire:

Often referred to as “the Sick Man of Europe.”
Independence movements emerged resulting in Greece's independence in the 1830s, followed by Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania seeking autonomy.

Latin America:

Inspired by revolutionary ideas, many nations like Mexico, Argentina, and Chile gained independence by 1825.

Ireland:

Irish nationalists pressed for independence from Britain with movements such as Irish Home Rule intensifying in the late 1800s.

Africa and Asia:

Nationalism developed as a reaction against imperialism. Examples include early anti-colonial sentiments seen in India with the Indian National Congress founded in 1885.

Why It Matters...

The emergence of new nations like Germany and Italy drastically altered Europe’s political landscape. Old empires, particularly Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, were destabilized by internal nationalist struggles. Colonized populations began to contemplate their national identities and strive for independence, creating tensions among nationalist states that ultimately contributed to the conditions leading to World War I.

Conservatism vs Liberalism: Ideological Battles

After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815), European leaders divided sharply into conservatives and liberals, each defining the political tensions that emerged from 1815 to 1914.

What is Conservatism?

Conservatism is marked by a focus on preserving traditions, authority, and orderly society, advocating for monarchies and established churches, and opposing rapid change. Conservatives believed that human nature was flawed, necessitating strong institutions, such as monarchies, to maintain stability.

Conservative Actions (1815-1914):

The Congress of Vienna restored monarchs and aimed at a balance of power to prevent revolutions.
The Holy Alliance formed between Russia, Austria, and Prussia aimed to intervene against revolutions.
Conservatives suppressed revolutions throughout the early to mid-19th century to maintain stability.

What is Liberalism?

Liberalism champions individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and equality before the law. Liberals advocate for limiting government power through support of constitutions and representative governments.

Liberal Actions (1815-1914):

Participated in revolutions urging for constitutional governments.
Extended voting rights through gradual reforms, such as Britain’s Reform Acts in 1832, 1867, and 1884.
Contributed to the unifications of Italy and Germany through liberal nationalist movements.
Established influential political parties across Europe advocating for individual rights.

Economic Shifts: Early Industrialization and Global Markets

After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna redrew Europe to preserve a balance of power, which allowed for economic growth and industrial expansion across Europe during this period.

Expansion of Industrialization

The First Industrial Revolution (late 18th century – mid-19th century):

Started in Britain, reliant on coal and iron resources that propelled mechanized industries, particularly textiles. The movement from rural living to urbanized industrial centers marked significant social transformation.

The Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870-1914):

Spread geographically to nations like Germany, the U.S., and Japan.
New technologies emerged, including steel and electricity, enhancing production methods and consumer goods availability.

Global Market Integration

Transportation and Communication Innovations:

The development of railways and steamships drastically improved the transport of goods and people.
Telegraph lines facilitated quick communication worldwide, enhancing coordination for trade and empire management.

Trade and Investment:

Britain led a free trade movement post-Corn Laws (1846), promoting global trade.
London became the financial center of the world, funding global investments in railroads, mines, and plantations.

Social Impact and Migration Patterns

Economic opportunities drove over 50 million Europeans to migrate to the Americas and Australia from 1815 to 1914.
Indentured labor from India and China emerged post-abolition of slavery to fill labor gaps in colonies.
Forced migrations continued, notably through the legacy of slavery into various colonial territories.

Effects on Global Regions

Europe and North America:

Mass industrial expansion culminated in economic dominance but also created stark social transformations, including a burgeoning middle class and urban factory labor struggles.

Africa and Asia:

The partition of Africa and control in regions like India led to harsh exploitation and changes in local economies, fostering anti-colonial sentiments.

Latin America:

Export economies formed while local infrastructures came under foreign control leading to political instability over the century.

Japan:

The Meiji Restoration marked a rapid industrialization phase, modernizing its military and converting Japan into an imperial vigor by early 20th century.

Impacts of the Opium Wars

The Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) between China and Western powers, primarily Britain, resulted in severe consequences for China, including forced trade openings and territorial concessions.

First Opium War (1839-1842):

Triggered by China's attempts to end the opium trade, British military response ensued, leading to China's defeat and the Treaty of Nanjing.

Second Opium War (1856-1860):

Fueled by expanded British interests, further concessions were forced upon China through additional treaties, legalizing the opium trade.

Imperialism and Industrialization

The interplay between economic motives, strategic interests, and cultural justifications fueled the era of imperialism, leading to profound social and environmental degradation across colonized regions. By 1914, world economies became deeply interconnected through both imperialism and industrialization, setting the stage for intense global competition and insecurities that would eventually catalyze World War I.

Revolutions of 1848: Success or Failure?

Consisting of numerous uprisings across Europe, the Revolutions of 1848 aimed at liberty, independence, and social reforms, ultimately failing to achieve their immediate goals despite laying groundwork for future national unification and political modernity.

The Young Turk Revolution (1908)

The Young Turks aimed to restore constitutional rule in the waning Ottoman Empire. Their drive for modernization confronted various resistances, shaping the future political landscape of the region.

Tensions from Imperialism: The Balkans and Morocco

Nationalism rose particularly in the Balkans, intensifying ethnic conflicts and contributing to the environment that led to World War I. Similarly, imperial rivalries, highlighted by the Moroccan Crises, showcased the friction between powers vying for global dominance, further escalating tensions.

The Assassination in Sarajevo: Catalyst for War

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 exemplified the faults of nationalism and imperialism that had permeated Europe. This event triggered a cascade of alliances and military actions, leading to the outbreak of World War I.

The July Crisis

The series of diplomatic failures and militaristic decisions following the assassination illustrated the fragile peace that could quickly unravel, marking the descent into a global conflict by the end of July 1914.

The Era of Nationalism and Imperialism (1815-1914)

The Era of Nationalism and Imperialism (1815-1914)