Art of the Ancient Near East: A Comprehensive Study of Prestige and Power

The art of the Ancient Near East serves as a profound mirror reflecting the prestige and power of its various civilizations. This detailed study explores the development of agriculture, the rise of complex societies, and the artistic and architectural achievements of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Hittites, Elamites, Assyrians, and Persians, demonstrating how art was intrinsically linked to religious beliefs, political authority, and societal structure.

The Development of Agriculture and Early Societies

The foundation of complex societies in the Ancient Near East began with the pivotal development of agriculture. The Fertile Crescent, an arc-shaped region encompassing parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and the fringes of Turkey and Iran, was the first area to domesticate grains and animals around 11,000 BCE, primarily through rain-fed agriculture. By the 6th millennium BCE, agriculture flourished in the alluvial plains between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, a region the Greeks later named Mesopotamia, meaning "land between the rivers," located in present-day Iraq.

This fertile but challenging land, prone to both drought and flood, necessitated the development of large-scale systems to control the water supply. This critical need for water management fostered communal organization, laying the groundwork for more complex social structures.

Major Social Shifts in Mesopotamia (4000 – 3000 BCE)

The period between 4000 and 3000 BCE witnessed significant social transformations in Mesopotamia:

Urbanization: Agricultural villages evolved into self-sufficient and independent social and political units, forming prosperous cities in both northern and southern Mesopotamia.
City-States: These cities, along with their surrounding territories, developed into independent city-states, each possessing its own gods and government.
Social Hierarchies and Specialized Skills: The emergence of social hierarchies was driven by the development of specialized skills beyond basic agricultural work, supported by agricultural surpluses.
Technological Advancements: This era saw crucial technological innovations, including the invention of the wheel, the plow, grain mills, ovens, brick and pottery kilns, and the establishment of textile and metal workshops.
Trade and Cultural Contact: Evidence of trade and contact with other cultures is apparent, particularly due to Mesopotamia's lack of native metals and minerals, necessitating imports.

A map illustrating the Fertile Crescent highlights the areas where wild einkorn wheat, wild emmer wheat, and wild barley originated, along with the early domestication sites for sheep (11,000 BCE), cattle (10,000 BCE), pigs (10,500 BCE), and goats (11,000 BCE). The map also shows the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Persian Gulf, and various ancient cities, emphasizing the geographical context of these developments.

Cultural Centers Outside Mesopotamia

While Mesopotamia was a primary hub, other significant cultural centers existed:

Elam: Located in the plain between the Tigris River and the Zagros Mountains to the east, Elam was an important region.
Anatolia: The Hittite Kingdom flourished in Anatolia.
Persia: By the 6th century BCE, the land of the Achaemenid Persians (modern-day Iran) emerged. The Persians eventually established a vast empire that encompassed the entire ancient Near East.

A map titled "The Ancient Near East" visually represents the fertile land that supported early agriculture, notably the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the strips of land on either side of the Nile in Egypt. It also marks key regions like Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia, Elam, and Persia, illustrating the shifting balance of power over centuries between local entities and invaders such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.

Explorations of Mesopotamia

Systematic archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia began in the 19th century, sparking immense interest in Europe and North America. Museums started collecting Near Eastern art, with some of the most popular discoveries including:

Stone reliefs depicting warfare and hunting scenes.
Colossal statues of monstrous human-headed bulls from Assyrian palaces.
Treasures from the Royal Cemetery at Ur in Southern Mesopotamia.

Images from the presentation showcase examples of these discoveries: a large stone relief depicting a hunting scene, a colossal human-headed winged bull (Lamassu), and various artifacts from the Royal Cemetery at Ur, including intricate metalwork and jewelry.

A. Sumer and Sumerian Art (3500-2340 BCE)

Sumer was a region in southern Mesopotamia characterized by independent city-states that developed between approximately 3500 and 2340 BCE. These city-states featured a simple form of social hierarchy, often led by priest-kings who controlled larger rural areas. Two major population centers, Uruk (Warka) and Nippur (Ad-Dīwānīyah), each about 20 hectares, emerged alongside many smaller centers.

A map of Sumer highlights the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the locations of key Sumerian city-states such as Eshnunna, Djomdet Nasr, Kish, Nippur, Adab, Shuruppak, Umma, Girsu, Lagash, Uruk, Larsa, Ur, Eridu, and Nina.

Important Sumerian Inventions

Sumer is renowned for several groundbreaking inventions that profoundly impacted human civilization:

Wagon Wheel: Revolutionized transport and warfare. An image shows war chariots on the Standard of Ur (c. 2600 BCE) and a scale model of a two-wheeled chariot.
Plow: Significantly improved agricultural productivity. An image displays an imitation of a Sumerian plow.
Metallurgy: Sumerians mastered copper and bronze casting. An example is a lion-headed eagle made of copper, gold, and lapis lazuli.
Writing: A monumental achievement that enabled record-keeping and complex communication.
Temple Architecture: Developed monumental religious structures.

1. Writing: From Pictographs to Cuneiform

The oldest written documents from Mesopotamia are administrative and commercial records. Between 3400 and 3200 BCE, inventories of cattle, food, and other trade items were recorded using pictographs—simple pictures drawn on wet clay with a pointed tool, each representing a thing or a concept. An example is a pre-cuneiform tag with a drawing of a goat or sheep from Al-Hasakah (3300-3100 BCE).

From 3000 to 2900 BCE, these pictographs were simplified into phonograms, which represented syllable sounds, thus evolving into a true writing system. A proto-cuneiform tablet from the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100–2900 BCE) illustrates this transition.

By about 2600 BCE, cuneiform (Latin for "wedge-shaped") became sophisticated enough to express complex grammatical constructions. The term "cuneiform" describes the wedge-shaped marks made by the stylus, a writing instrument with a triangular wedge at one end and a point at the other. Scribes were a specialized class of professionals responsible for writing and maintaining records.

Development of the Cuneiform Script

The evolution of cuneiform script can be traced through several stages, as illustrated by a diagram:

3000 BCE: The initial pictogram.
2800–2600 BCE: The rotated pictogram used as phonograms.
c. 2600 BCE: The abstracted glyph in archaic monumental inscriptions.
Contemporary with stage 3: The sign as written in clay.
Late 3rd millennium BCE: A further developed form.
Early 2nd millennium BCE: Old Assyrian ductus, adopted into Hittite.
Early 1st millennium BCE until extinction: The simplified sign used by Assyrian scribes.

A large cuneiform inscription found on the south side of Van Castle hill in eastern Turkey, dating back 25 centuries, provides a powerful example. This inscription, from the Persian king Xerxes, is written in Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite. It praises Ahuramazda as the great god who created the sky, land, and humans, and made Xerxes king of many kings. Xerxes states that his father, Darius, ordered the cliff to be worked but wrote nothing, so Xerxes ordered his own inscription to be made, asking Ahuramazda to protect him, his kingdom, and his deeds.

2. Architecture and Religion: Temples

Sumerian religion was polytheistic, with each city-state having one or more patron gods. In Uruk, the sky god Anu and the goddess of love and fertility, Inanna, were central. The fate of the city-state and its people was believed to be linked to these deities. The strategic placement of sanctuaries within city planning underscored the central role of the local god in daily life.

The god's temple served as the city's monumental nucleus, fulfilling both secular and religious functions. It was the focus of local religious practice, an administrative center, and an economic hub. Temple staff, including priests and scribes, managed official business and oversaw the god's and the ruler's possessions.

The White Temple in Uruk

The White Temple in Uruk, dating back 5000 years, is a prime example. Though rarely well-preserved, it stood atop a high platform known as a ziggurat. The superstructure was constructed from mudbricks. A reconstruction drawing shows the White Temple and the Great Ziggurat in Uruk, illustrating its elevated position and monumental scale. Interior decoration included wall mosaics made of painted clay or stone cones, as seen in the Inanna temple of Uruk.

Religion Mirrored in Architecture

The elevated placement of Mesopotamian temples on high platforms symbolized the belief that gods resided in the sky, with ziggurats literally reaching towards the heavens. The tallest ziggurat, over 80 meters high, was in Babylon, known to the Hebrews as the 'Tower of Babel.' This structure became the centerpiece of a biblical story about the insolent pride (hybris) of humans attempting to reach the sky, inspiring many artists, such as Peter Bruegel the Elder's 1563 painting of the Tower of Babel.

3. Sculpture

Mask of Warka (Lady of Uruk)

The Mask of Warka (ancient Uruk), found in the White Temple, is one of the earliest known representations of the human face. Dating from the Jemdet Nasr period (3000-2900 BCE), this 20 cm tall mask, made from imported white marble, is possibly a depiction of the goddess Inanna, showcasing anthropomorphism. It was likely incorporated into a larger wooden (cult?) image, making it an acrolithic sculpture.

Warka Vase: Gifts for a Goddess

A tall vessel of carved alabaster, also found near Inanna's temple, demonstrates how Mesopotamian sculptors conveyed stories with clarity and economy. This visual narrative is organized into three registers (horizontal bands or friezes) of low relief, condensing the story to its essential elements.

Top Register: Depicts the goddess Inanna accepting an offering, standing before her shrine/storehouse (marked by reed door-poles). Two men face her: a naked priest/acolyte presenting an offering-filled basket, and a ceremonially dressed priest-king. This scene likely represents a re-enactment of the ritual marriage between Inanna and Dumuzi (her consort, played by the priest-king) during the New Year's festival, intended to ensure the fertility of crops, animals, and people, and thus the continued survival of Uruk.
Middle Register: Shows naked men carrying baskets of foodstuffs as offerings.
Lower Register: Illustrates the "sources of life" in the natural world, including water, plants (date palm, barley, wheat, flax), and alternating rams and ewes.

Votive Statues

Votive statues were images dedicated to the gods, directly related to devotional practice. Wealthy worshippers would commission images of themselves to be placed in a shrine before a larger, more elaborate image of a god. Simple inscriptions identified the figure as "one who offers prayers," while larger inscriptions recounted the donor's accomplishments in the god's honor.

The Tell Asmar Hoard (Early Dynastic I-II, c. 2900–2600 BCE) consists of 12 gypsum statues unearthed at Eshnunna (Tell Asmar) in Iraq. These statues exemplify the abstract style of Early Dynastic temple sculpture (2900-2350 BCE). Images show alabaster statuettes of Sumerian male and female worshippers, often with missing arms, forearms, and legs, depicted in a gesture of prayer.

4. Artes Minores (Applied Arts): Royal Cemetery at Ur

The Royal Cemetery at Ur provides rich evidence of the wealth of ancient Sumerian city-states. Leading families of Ur were buried in vaulted chambers, accompanied by luxurious grave goods. Offerings included gold helmets, daggers with lapis lazuli handles, golden beakers and bowls, jewelry of gold and lapis, musical instruments, chariots, and other opulent items. The richest tombs even contained dozens of bodies—musicians, servants, charioteers, and soldiers—all sacrificed to accompany the deceased into the afterlife.

Sumerian artists excelled in working with precious materials. Etched carnelian beads in a necklace from the Royal Tombs of Ur are believed to have originated from the Indus Valley civilization, demonstrating early Indus-Mesopotamia trade relations. Reconstructed Sumerian headgear and necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi (British Museum) and the Golden helmet of Meskalamdug (possible founder of the First Dynasty of Ur, 26th century BCE) further highlight this craftsmanship.

Great Lyre with Bull’s Head from Ur

A superb example of Sumerian artistic skill is the Great Lyre with a bull's head (c. 2600–2500 BCE), found in a royal tomb in Ur. It combines wood, gold, lapis lazuli, and shell. The presence of lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone imported from Afghanistan, indicates widespread trade in the region during this period.

On one end of the soundbox, surmounting a panel with inlaid shell images, sits a magnificent gold-sculpted head of a bearded bull (a mythological animal) with a decoratively patterned blue beard made of lapis lazuli.

The inlaid panels on the lyre's soundbox depict several scenes:

Top Panel: A heroic figure, the "Master of animals," embraces two man-bulls in a heraldic composition (symmetrical on either side of a central figure).
Middle Panel 1: A hyena and a lion deliver food and drink to a banquet.
Middle Panel 2: A musical ensemble featuring a donkey, a bear, and a fox provides entertainment.
Bottom Panel: A scorpion-man, associated with the Epic of Gilgamesh, a Sumerian poem about a hero's quest for immortality and the meaning of human existence (cf. Herakles). This scene carries significant funerary significance.

The Standard of Ur

The Standard of Ur (2600 BCE, Early Dynastic Period III) is a box made of shell, red limestone, and lapis lazuli inlaid on wood, discovered at the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Its exact function is unknown, but its three registers (on all sides) are among the best-surviving examples of Sumerian pictorial narrative.

War Side: The story begins with a battle scene. The bottom register shows a battle, with chariots (drawn by wild asses) trampling fallen enemy soldiers. The middle register depicts rows of Sumerian soldiers in locked formation, while the top register shows the defeated enemy being led away. The Sumerian ruler is the largest figure, demonstrating hierarchic scale.
Peace Side: The back of the box depicts a celebratory feast. The bottom two registers show servants and royal stewards carrying provisions. The ruler presides over a banquet, singled out by hierarchic scale, holding a drinking cup. A woman sings to entertain the royal guests, accompanied by a bull's-head lyre.

Sumerian Art in Miniature: Cylinder Seals

Sumerians developed cylinder seals to secure and identify documents and signify property ownership. These seals, made of hard and sometimes semiprecious stones, had designs incised into their surface. When rolled across a damp clay surface, the seal left a mirror image of its design that could not easily be altered once dry. Most seals had a hole through the center, suggesting they were worn on necklaces as personal items. They have been unearthed in great numbers throughout Mesopotamia.

An example is Queen Puabi's cylinder seal from Ur (2600 BCE), made of lapis lazuli. It was found in her tomb, leaning against her right arm. The modern clay impression of its incised design shows two registers of a convivial banquet. In the upper register, two seated women in fringed skirts and buns raise their cups, attended by standing servants. In the lower register, a single seated figure sits before a table piled with food, while another figure offers a cup. Musical entertainment is provided by four women.

Victory and Vultures Stele

Sumerian city-states were frequently at war. The Stele of the Vultures from Girsu (modern Telloh, Syria, c. 2600-2500 BCE), made of limestone, commemorates the victory of Eannatum, king of Lagash, over the people of Umma. Cuneiform inscriptions confirm this historical event. The stele depicts Eannatum leading an infantry battalion into battle and attacking from a war chariot.

B. Akkad and Babylon (2340 – 1595 BCE)

Akkadians (2340-2180 BCE)

During the Sumerian period, Akkadians settled north of Uruk. While they adopted Sumerian culture, they maintained their own Semitic language (related to Arabic and Hebrew). Under the powerful military and political figure Sargon I (ruled c. 2332–2279 BCE), the Akkadians conquered most of Mesopotamia and beyond. Sargon, known as "King of the Four Quarters of the World," ruled his empire for over half a century from his capital at Akkad (whose location remains unknown).

The Akkadian Empire had a relatively short life, meaning little Akkadian art survives, mostly following existing Sumerian traditions. Akkadians adopted Sumerian mud-brick architecture. A new concept of royal power emerged, based on unswerving loyalty to the king rather than the city-state, making the king the central focus of artistic production.

Head of an Akkadian Ruler (Nineveh, Iraq, 2250 – 2200 BCE)

A copper head of an Akkadian king, possibly Sargon, found at Nineveh, embodies the new concept of absolute monarchy. It is one of the earliest known hollow cast metal sculptures. The head was mutilated in antiquity, an act of political iconoclasm—selective disfiguration intended to show defeat and humiliation.

The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (2254-2218 BCE)

This stele commemorates a military victory of Sargon's successor, Naram-Sin, over the Lullubi people of the Iranian mountains. The scene is watched over by a cluster of solar deities (radiating suns). Naram-Sin, wearing the horned helmet-crown of a deity, stands above his soldiers and fallen foes at the top of the scene. The tapering shape of the stele is dynamically integrated into the composition, accommodating and emphasizing the carved mountain within it, with Naram-Sin's pose reflecting the mountain's profile.

Innovations of the Naram-Sin Stele

First Depiction of Landscape: It is the first known depiction of landscape in Near Eastern art.
Successive Tiers: Figures are arranged on successive tiers of the landscape, rather than traditional horizontal registers.
Hierarchic Scale: The development of "hierarchic scale" is evident, where relative size indicates relative importance. Naram-Sin is shown as the largest figure, expressing his status and pre-eminence, mirrored by the mountain.
Divine Status: By wearing the horned helmet of the gods (an attribute), Naram-Sin claims divine status for himself, asserting a divine right to rule. His representation conveys his sacred and political authority as the leader of the state.
Political Stratification: The stele communicates and celebrates the political stratification that brought order and security to the world.

The Resurgence of Sumer – Neo-Sumerian Period (2125-2000 BCE)

The Akkadian Empire fell around 2180 BCE to the Guti, a mountain people from the northeast. The Sumerians, under Urnammu, regained control of the region in 2112 BCE, establishing the Neo-Sumerian state with its capital in Ur (the Third Dynasty of Ur). A map illustrates the Ur III state and its sphere of influence, showing Ur as the capital.

Ziggurat at Ur

King Urnammu commissioned the construction of a mud-brick ziggurat in Ur, dedicated to the moon god Nanna. This ziggurat was much grander than the one in Uruk, with a solid mud-brick base 15 meters high, faced with baked bricks laid in bitumen (an asphalt-like substance). Three staircases, each with 100 steps, converged at an imposing entrance gate atop the first platform. Each platform was angled outward from top to base, likely to prevent rainwater from forming puddles and eroding the pavement. While the first two levels and their retaining walls have been reconstructed, little remains of the upper level and temple.

Gudea’s Diorite Portraits

The most conspicuous preserved sculptural monuments of the Neo-Sumerian age portray Gudea of Lagash. The large Sumerian city-state of Lagash remained independent under Gudea, who ruled from Girsu (present-day Telloh, Iraq) on the Tigris River. Gudea built and restored many temples, placing votive statues of himself in diorite within them, following a venerable Mesopotamian tradition. These statues, 20 of which survive today, embody his just rule. A cuneiform inscription on one such statue dedicates Gudea, the sculpture, and the temple to the goddess Geshtinanna, the divine poet and interpreter of dreams. Gudea's prominent face, framed by a patterned wide-brimmed hat, is youthful and serene, with oversized, wide-open eyes perpetually confronting the gaze of the deity. The statue is depicted with "life-giving water" flowing from a vase, symbolizing prosperity for the land and its people.

Babylonians (1800 – 1595 BCE)

The resurgence of Sumer was short-lived. The last king of the Third Dynasty of Ur fell to the Elamites, and the subsequent two centuries saw the re-emergence of traditional city-states. Hammurabi (ruled 1792–1750 BCE), a Semitic Amorite king, re-established centralized government in Southern Mesopotamia. His capital city was Babylon, and its residents were known as Babylonians. A map of Babylonia at the time of Hammurabi shows Babylon as a central city, with other cities like Sippar, Kish, Eshnunna, Nippur, Larsa, Ur, and Eridu.

Code of Hammurabi

One of Hammurabi's most famous achievements was his written legal code, inscribed on a basalt stele. The stele features a portrait of Hammurabi standing before the enthroned supreme judge and sun god, Shamash, the patron of law and justice. In the introductory section, Hammurabi declared his intention "to cause justice to prevail in the land... that the strong might not oppress the weak nor the weak the strong."

The code's 300 entries primarily address commercial and property matters, with fewer dealing with domestic life and physical assault. Punishments were based on the wealth, social standing, and gender of the offender, favoring the wealthy over the poor, citizens over slaves, and men over women.

Mural Painting of Zimri-Lim and Ishtar

While Hammurabi ruled Babylon, King Zimri-Lim (1779–1757 BCE) controlled the Neo-Sumerian city-state of Mari and constructed a huge palace complex. In 1757 BCE, Hammurabi led an army into Mari and destroyed the residence. Despite the destruction, some plaster paintings decorating the palace walls survived. One significant painting covered a wall in the palace's main courtyard near the entrance to the throne room suite.

At the center of this "investiture" painting is the Investiture of Zimri-Lim, depicting the goddess Ishtar granting him the right to rule. Ishtar, with one foot on her sacred lion, offers Zimri-Lim the emblems of power: a rod and a ring. A god and two other goddesses witness the ceremony. Below, two more goddesses display vases with plants and life-giving water, symbolizing fertility and prosperity.

C. The Hittites (1600-1200 BCE)

The Babylonian Empire was destroyed by the Anatolian Hittites, who conquered and sacked Babylon around 1595 BCE. The Hittites then retired to their homeland, leaving Babylon in the hands of the Kassites. During the Late Bronze Age, much of Anatolia came under the control of the Hittite kingdom of Hattusha. A map shows the Hittite Empire's extent, with its heartland and maximum influence.

The Hittites’ Fortified Capital: Hattusha/Boğazkale

The political unification of Anatolia by the Hittites, beginning around 1600 BCE, and successful military campaigns abroad brought wealth to their capital, Hattusha/Boğazkale, and other towns like Alaca Höyük and Tilmen Höyük. Modern estimates place Hattusha's peak population between 40,000 and 50,000 within its 1.8 km² area.

Hattusha comprised an inner/lower and outer/upper portion, both surrounded by massive walls. The inner/lower city housed a citadel with large administrative buildings and temples. The royal residence, or acropolis, was built on a high ridge known as Büyükkale (Great Fortress). Plans of Hattusha show the layout of the royal residence and the Great Temple.

The Great Temple

The Great Temple was dedicated to the Storm God Teshup. The complex featured a central courtyard surrounded by numerous spaces. Beyond ritual installations, much space was allocated to storage facilities for liquids and foodstuffs, primarily wine, oil, and grain. It also housed archives of cuneiform tablets describing religious ceremonies, reflecting the Hittite practice of incorporating deities from other regions, earning them the moniker "the land of a thousand gods."

Storage Capacity and Hittite Bureaucracy

In the ancient world, real power was often demonstrated through storage capacity. Hittite society was a tribute society, where each social level paid tribute to the level above. At Hattusha, large granaries must have held impressive amounts of grain. This extensive storage capacity also explains the need for an elaborate Hittite bureaucracy, managed through seals and tablets. A plan of the storage facilities in the lower city illustrates this emphasis on logistical organization.

Outer City Gateways

The outer city featured elaborate gateways decorated with reliefs of warriors, lions, and sphinxes, serving as protective devices. Four temples were located here, each set around a porticoed courtyard, alongside secular buildings and residential structures. While houses built with timber and mud bricks have vanished, the stone foundations of temples and palaces remain. Images show the Sphinx Gate, Lion Gate, and King's Gate, all adorned with impressive stone carvings.

Yazılıkaya: A Hittite Holy Site

Yazılıkaya, a Hittite holy site, was located within walking distance of Hattusha's city gates. It consisted of two main chambers formed inside a group of rock outcrops, whose faces were covered with rock-cut reliefs. The entrance buildings were oriented to align with sunrise and sunset.

The most impressive is Chamber A, featuring rock-cut reliefs of 64 deities in procession. The left wall shows male deities in traditional kilts, pointed shoes, and horned hats. The right wall depicts female deities wearing crowns and long skirts. These processions lead to a central scene of the supreme couple of the pantheon: the storm-god Teshub and the sun-goddess Hebat. Teshub stands on two mountain gods, while Hebat stands on a panther.

The rock sanctuary symbolizes the cosmos as the Hittites imagined it. The reliefs are thought to illustrate the three main elements of cosmic order: the earth, the sky, and the underworld, all populated by deities. Images show the gods of the underworld and a diagram illustrating the Hittite cosmos. Yazılıkaya demonstrates that Hittite artists were specialists in carving sculpture out of natural rock formations. Rock reliefs constitute a large part of the extant artistic remains of the Hittite Empire, often found near sacred springs and hilltops, continuing to play an important role in indigenous religious life in Anatolia.

Middle Elamite and Assyrian Art

Elamite Civilization

Elam occupied southwestern Iran from the 4th millennium BC and is mentioned in the Bible (Genesis). Proto-Elamite and Elamite records are among the earliest written documents. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, the Elamites reached the height of their political and military power. They plundered Babylonia, carrying off important stelae like those of Naram-Sin and Hammurabi to re-erect them at their capital, Susa. The Elamite empire was eventually destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 641 BC when he sacked Susa, though the city would later rise again under the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Napir-Asu’s Immovable Portrait

Discovered in the ruins of Susa, the life-size bronze and copper statue of Queen Napir-Asu is a remarkable piece. Even in its fragmentary state, it weighs about 1705 kg, cast on a solid bronze core. This costly bronze core was chosen because the queen desired her portrait to be a permanent, immovable offering in the temple where it was found. An inscription on the statue invokes a curse: "He who would seize my statue, who would smash it, who would destroy its inscription, who would erase my name, may he be smitten by the course of [the gods], that his name shall become extinct, that his offspring be barren..." This inscription underscores the statue's sacred purpose and the queen's desire for lasting legacy.

The statue's traditional cylindrical volume is refined with close observations of feminine softness in the arms and bust, the grace and elegance of the long-fingered hands, the subtle bend of the wrist, and details like rings, bracelets, and fabric patterns.

Assyrians (c. 1400 BC onwards)

Around 1400 BC, the Assyrians rose to dominance in northern Mesopotamia. By the end of the 9th century BC, they controlled most of Mesopotamia, and by the early 7th century BC, their influence extended as far west as Egypt. A map shows the ancient Assyrian heartland (red) and the vast extent of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (orange) in the 7th century BC.

Influenced by Sumerian culture, the Assyrians adopted the ziggurat form and preserved Sumerian texts. Assyrian rulers built fortified capital cities with huge palaces decorated with wall paintings and stone reliefs depicting battles, hunting scenes, royal life, ceremonies, and religious imagery.

Assurnasirpal II (883–859 BC)

King Assurnasirpal II established his capital at Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, Iraq), on the east bank of the Tigris. He undertook an ambitious building program, fortifying the new city with mud-brick walls 5 miles long and 42 feet high. Most buildings were made of mud brick, but limestone and alabaster were used for pictorial decoration. Colossal guardian figures, known as lamassus, flanked the major portals, and walls were covered with low-relief panels.

In 2015, the terrorist organization Islamic State destroyed much of the excavated remains of Nimrud, including lamassu figures, due to their "un-Islamic" nature. Reconstruction work is ongoing.

Monstrous Guardians: Lamassu

Lamassu were monstrous guardians, typically winged, human-headed lions or bulls. These sculptures ingeniously combine a front view of the animal at rest with a side view of it in motion, creating a dynamic and imposing presence. Colossal limestone lamassu guarded the gates to Sargon's palace, as seen in images of the Louvre's collection.

‘Chronicles of Great Deeds’: Narrative Reliefs

Assyrian kings adorned their palace walls with extensive series of narrative reliefs, exalting royal power and piety. These sculptures meticulously recorded battlefield victories and the slaying of wild animals, demonstrating an incomparable degree of documentary detail in depicting dress, objects, and human/animal bodies in low relief.

Siege Relief (878 BCE): Depicts Assurnasirpal driving his enemy's forces into the Euphrates River. Two Assyrian archers shoot arrows at the fleeing foes in the water, who are heading towards a fort where compatriots await. The artist's purpose was to tell the story clearly and economically.
Inscriptions: Inscriptions in Assurnasirpal II's palace reveal the brutal nature of Assyrian warfare: "Many of the prisoners I took I burned in a fire, many I took alive. From some I cut off their hands, from others I cut off their noses, ears and fingers; I put out the eyes of many of the soldiers. I burned their young men, women and children to death. I killed the nobles who rebelled against me and spread their skins out on the piles. ... then I cleaned my weapons in the deep sea and performed sheep-offerings to the gods."

Decoration of the Palace of King Assurbanipal at Nineveh

Two centuries later, King Assurbanipal maintained his capital at Nineveh (present-day Kuyunjik, Iraq), decorating his palace with alabaster panels carved with pictorial narratives in low relief. While most reliefs depict the king in battle or hunting, one panel shows the king and queen relaxing in a pleasure garden, surrounded by servants bringing food and whisking away insects. This seemingly tranquil domestic scene is actually a victory celebration, marked by the severed head of his vanquished enemy, Teumman, King of Elam, hanging from a tree at the far left.

The Assyrians regarded prowess in hunting as a manly virtue, on par with success in warfare. Royal hunts, however, did not occur in the wild but in controlled environments to ensure the king's safety and success. A relief shows Assurbanipal hunting lions, with lions charging the king in his chariot, protected by attendants. Dead and dying animals, pierced by arrows, glorify the ruler by showing the "king of men" repeatedly besting the "king of beasts."

The immediacy of these images indicates a shift in Mesopotamian art: moving away from a sense of timeless solemnity towards an engaging sense of visual narrative that draws the viewer into the drama and emotionalism of the event portrayed.

Assyrian Painting

Assyrian painting, though rarely preserved, depicted similar motifs to the reliefs. A tile from Nimrud (ancient Kalhu, Neo-Assyrian period, 875-850 BCE) shows Ashurnasirpal II accompanied by a bodyguard and attendants, likely part of a sequence portraying the king as a triumphant warrior and hunter. It is believed that most Assyrian palaces and major buildings featured such paintwork and decorative elements, particularly in reception rooms.

Neo-Babylonian Empire (626-539 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar II was a great patron of architecture, building temples throughout his realm and transforming Babylon into one of the most splendid cities of its day (10 km²).

Outer Walls, Processional Way, and Ishtar Gate

Outer Walls: Nebuchadnezzar oversaw the construction of impressive outer walls.
Processional Way: A broad, ceremonial avenue used for religious processions honoring the city's patron god, Marduk.
Ishtar Gate: The Processional Way passed through the Ishtar Gate, the city's main entrance, faced with striking blue-glazed bricks.

The restored outer gate of Ishtar, now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, showcases profile pictures of Marduk's dragon and Adad's bull, alternating along the gate. The processional way itself was lined with Ishtar's sacred lion. A building inscription on the outer Ishtar Gate states: "Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon... pulled down the [old] gates and built footing at the water table with bitumen and bricks... And had them made of bricks with blue stone on which wonderful bulls and dragons were depicted... so that Mankind might gaze on them in wonder."

The Processional Way and Etemenanki

The Processional Way began at the Esagila, the main temple of Marduk, next to the Etemenanki, or ziggurat of Marduk, and led to the Beit Akitu (New Year) temple of Marduk, outside the Ishtar Gate. The Etemenanki, Babylon's ziggurat temple dedicated to Marduk (god of agriculture and water, "Lord of the Gods of Heaven and Earth"), was originally built in the 9th century BCE, destroyed by Sennacherib around 698 BCE, and rebuilt by Nabopolassar and completed by Nebuchadnezzar. A stele fragment and a restitution drawing show its probable original appearance.

Babylon: City of Wonders and the Tower of Babel

Nebuchadnezzar is also named as the builder of the "Tower of Babylon," which is believed to be the origin of the biblical story of the Tower of Babel. According to the Bible, people decided to build a monument to reach the heavens, angering God, who then caused them to speak different languages, halting the project. Peter Bruegel the Elder's 1563 painting of the Tower of Babel visually interprets this story.

Babylon was considered a "City of Wonders," with two of its monuments listed among the 7 must-see monuments compiled by Antipater of Sidon in the 2nd century BC: the walls of impregnable Babylon and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The Hanging Gardens are known from descriptions by ancient authors, such as Josephus, who recounts Nebuchadnezzar building high walls and a "pensile paradise" to gratify his queen, who was fond of mountainous scenery. To date, however, no archaeological evidence for the Hanging Gardens has been found at Babylon.

The Triumph of Persia (Achaemenid Dynasty)

The Persians settled in southwestern Iran at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Originally subservient to the Medes, they gained independence in 549 BC under Cyrus II "the Great" (559–530 BC). Cyrus II led a series of conquests, creating an empire that included Babylonia (vanquished in 539 BC), stretched from Iran into Anatolia, and eventually encompassed Egypt and Cyprus. Cyrus II is recognized as the founder of the Achaemenid Dynasty.

The Achaemenid dynasty ruled this expanding empire for nearly two centuries. Only successful Greek resistance in the 5th century BC prevented Persia from extending its reach into southwestern Europe. The Achaemenid line ended with the death of Darius III in 330 BC, following his defeat by Alexander the Great. A map illustrates the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire around 500 BC, showing its vast territorial extent under Cyrus II, Cambyses II, and Darius I.

Imperial Persepolis

Around 515 BC, Darius began building a new capital in the Persian homeland, known today by its Greek name Persepolis. Materials, workers, and artists were imported from across the empire. The ceremonial and administrative complex on the citadel at Persepolis, built by Darius I and Xerxes (successors of Cyrus II) between 521 and 465 BC, is the most important source of knowledge about Persian art and architecture. Persepolis was later razed by Alexander the Great as an act of revenge for Athens's Acropolis.

In Assyrian fashion, the imperial complex was set on a raised platform, accessible only by a single ramp of wide, shallow steps that could be ascended on horseback and was heavily fortified. The approach to the citadel led through the Gate of All Lands/Nations, flanked by Assyrian-inspired colossal man-headed winged bulls (lamassu). Broad ceremonial stairways provided access to the platform and the royal audience hall, the Apadana, which featured 36 colossal columns. Images show the ruins of the Gate of All Nations, the Great Double Staircase, and the ruins of the Apadana, providing a general view of Persepolis.

Reliefs decorating the walls of the terrace and staircases depict processions of royal guards, Persian nobles and dignitaries, and personified representatives of 23 nations bringing tribute to the king. These "tribute figures" are often identifiable by their distinct dress. Bas-reliefs from the Apadana show delegations, including Lydians and Armenians bringing wine, and Persians and Medes bringing tribute.

New Persian Empire (Sasanian Art)

The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great in 330 BC marked the beginning of a long period of Greek and Roman rule over large parts of the Ancient Near East. It was not until the 3rd century AD that the Sasanians forced the Romans out of Asia. Artaxerxes I became the first Sasanian king of the New Persian Empire in 224 AD, an empire that would last until 636 AD when the Arabs drove the Sasanians out of Mesopotamia. A map illustrates the Sasanian Empire's extent during the Sasanian-Roman War in the 6th century AD.

Great Palace at Ctesiphon

Shapur I (son of Artaxerxes) erected the palace at Ctesiphon. Its central feature was the Iwan, a brick audience hall covered by a barrel vault. The façade to the left and right of the Iwan was divided into horizontal bands of blind arcades—a series of arches without actual openings—applied as wall decoration. Images include an 1824 drawing by Captain Hart, a 1923 Iraqi postage stamp featuring the arch, and the remains of the Kasra arch in Ctesiphon in 1932.

Sasanian Splendor

The Head of the Sasanian King, possibly Shapur II, suggests the splendor of Sasanian court life, the dynasty's wealth, and the superb skills of the court artists. This piece was created using the repoussé technique, where the sculptor hammered the shape from a single sheet of metal, pushing the features out from behind, and then engraved the details into the silver surface.

Conclusion

The Ancient Near East was the crucible for the birth of civilization, witnessing the emergence of urban life and the invention of writing in Mesopotamia during the 4th millennium BC. The Sumerians pioneered monumental temples, filling their religious precincts and tombs with statues, reliefs, and objects crafted from gold, lapis lazuli, and other costly materials.

Their successors—the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians—continued and evolved this tradition of monumental art and architecture. They erected royal portraits, stelae commemorating victories and codifying laws, and grand palaces adorned with painted narrative reliefs. These powerful empires, at times challenging the supremacy of both the Greeks and the Romans across the Mediterranean, ultimately succumbed to the Arabs in the 7th century AD. Thereafter, the greatest artists and architects of Mesopotamia dedicated their talents to the service of Islam, marking a new chapter in the region's rich artistic legacy.